Archive for category: Gender Wage Inequality

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The Gender Wage Gap in the Marshall Islands

Gender Wage Gap in the Marshall IslandsLocated between the Philippines and Hawaii, the Marshall Islands have a matrilineal tradition where women have historically inherited land and held important social status. Yet, women continue to face the gender wage gap in the Marshall Islands.

About the Gender Wage Gap in the Marshall Islands

The gender wage gap is most evident when looking at the facts. Women working in similar occupations earn about 14% less per year than men. This is due to various factors: limited workplace protections, limited education and high unemployment rates among women. Many of these disparities are rooted in traditional social structures.

The Constitution of the Republic of the Marshall Islands helps protect traditions and customs, granting protection to laws that contribute to discrimination against women. While women still inherit the land, discrimination against women is still present in various ways.

Traditional customs do not grant women chiefly positions; consequently, only 12 women serve on the Council of Iroji. Although it is not prohibited, the council has just started to promote it.

Additionally, women have the highest unemployment rate compared to men; in part, this is due to the low labor force that women comprise, but it’s also due to the lack of opportunities. When employers hire women for paid employment, they often receive fewer hours than men.

How the Marshall Islands Is Addressing the Gender Wage Gap

The government has recently begun implementing solutions to bridge the gender wage gap. While these initial efforts represent an important step forward, further policies and reforms are needed to achieve meaningful progress. The following section outlines three key solutions that could help reduce the gender wage gap in the Marshall Islands.

1. Strengthening the Gender Equality Act 

Since 2019, the Gender Equality Act  in place in the Marshall Islands, making this part of national law. However, due to traditions, what the act represents tends to clash with cultural values. 

The Marshall Islands government has begun taking steps to strengthen nationwide implementation of the Gender Equality Act. Expanding enforcement mechanisms and ensuring employers comply with the legislation could further reduce gender discrimination in employment by requiring equal treatment between men and women and equal pay.

2. Ratify the ILO Equal Remuneration Convention No.100

The ILO Equal Remuneration Convention is an international treaty adopted by the International Labor Organization (ILO). It is an agreement in which countries commit to meeting international standards on equal pay for work of equal value. 

Although the Marshall Islands has not yet ratified the ILO Equal Remuneration Convention No. 100, doing so would build on its existing commitment to gender equality by bridging domestic and international law through the alignment of domestic legislation with international labor standards.  

Ratifying the ILO Equal Remuneration Convention would strengthen the Marshall Islands’ commitment to internationally recognized standards of equal pay and encourage further reforms to continue to reduce the gender wage gap in the Marshall Islands.

3. Strengthening Workplace Protection

The Marshall Islands has already begun addressing gender inequality through legal reforms. In 2022, the World Bank’s Women, Business and the Law report identified development opportunities, stating that “When it comes to laws affecting women’s decisions to work, laws affecting women’s work after having children, gender differences in property and inheritance, and laws affecting the size of a woman’s pension, the Marshall Islands could consider reforms to improve legal equality for women.”

The World Bank recommends workplace protections such as maternity protection, paid parental leave, protection from discrimination and harassment and improvement in working conditions.

These policies help women not only remain in the workforce but also progress into higher-paying roles, which would increase the number of women in high-paying positions by reducing career interruptions that contribute to the gender wage gap in the Marshall Islands.

Looking Ahead

While the gender wage gap remains a persistent challenge in the Marshall Islands, a combination of policies and targeted initiatives could help reduce inequality. The country’s recent efforts to strengthen gender equality represent promising first steps toward more equitable economic opportunities for women. 

– Clara Iglesias Romero

Clara is based in Galicia, Spain, and focuses on Good News and Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Unsplash

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Addressing the Gender Wage Gap in Cabo Verde

Gender Wage Gap in Cabo VerdeCabo Verde is an archipelagic country off the coast of West Africa, where women make up just under half of the country’s total population. Despite the push to increase the labor participation rate amongst women and their presence within male-dominated fields, the gender wage gap in Cabo Verde still persists. This is largely due to a mixture of cultural norms and limited options of employment for women. However, landmark government reforms are aiming to combat this disparity.

Employment Opportunities

The labor participation rate amongst women is approximately 50.5%, an increase of 9.6% since the 90s. This is lower than the male participation rate, which is approximately 62.4%. This reveals how around 49.5% of women who are eligible to work in Cabo Verde are out of work.

For the women who are in employment, the opportunities that are available to them are limited. Although women hold 29% of senior and middle management roles within businesses, data from the World Bank reveals how the rate of vulnerable employment is higher amongst women than it is for men. This is work that has more informal arrangements and less social protection. 44.7% of women work within this industry, compared to 26.1% of men, fueling the gender wage gap in Cabo Verde.

Tourism offers many employment opportunities as it makes up 25% of Cabo Verde’s GDP. While women make up 60% of the labor within this industry, they earn 50% less than their male counterparts. Many women have short-term work contracts, a shortcoming that offers more instability for working women.

Marriage and Childcare

Early marriage and childcare responsibilities can limit women’s potential earnings which widens the gender wage gap in Cabo Verde. About 93% of non-employed women revealed that family responsibilities are their main reason for being out of work, with this issue being particularly prominent in rural areas.

According to UN Women, 8.4% of women aged 20 to 24 were married before they were 18. Early marriage can disrupt a woman’s education and her access to skills and resources needed to find good employment.

Efforts To Combat the Gender Wage Gap in Cabo Verde

Cabo Verde’s constitution guarantees equal rights for men and women. This is reflected in the Law of Parity, passed in 2019 which outlines a minimum quota of 40% in the representation of each gender within voting and electoral lists. By increasing female participation in politics, it strengthens the position of women within the workforce, minimizing the gender wage gap in Cabo Verde.

In 2023, UN Women, with the support of the Cabo Verdean Institute for Gender Equality and Equity commissioned the Action Plan for Gender Mainstreaming in Tourism. Its priorities include institutional strengthening, training and capacity building and women’s equality and empowerment. This resulted in the development of mentoring programs for women in male-dominated industries.

The impact of the expansion of vocational training for women enables them to gain important skills in business and financial literacy, combatting the gender wage gap in Cabo Verde. Katia Tavares is a recipient of the government’s program, where she undertook courses in a variety of fields. She chose to pursue a career in plumbing, a male-dominated field, due to its financial benefits. It marked a change from her previous job of selling clothes, where many days were unprofitable.

Women in the Workplace

In 2024, the Ministry of Finance in Cabo Verde implemented the Gender Equality Seal for Public Institutions, with a Gender Equality Commission formed to monitor the effective implementation of it within the workplace. It aimed to promote gender equality through government transparency. One of its key aims is the prevention and response to workplace harassment and gender-based violence.

This initiative highlights the next steps in ensuring women are safe as they enter the workplace. With many government initiatives in place, there is a clear drive to close the gender wage gap in Cabo Verde to create meaningful equality between men and women.

– Maya Tailor

Maya is based in London, UK and focuses on Global Health and Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Fighting the Gender Wage Gap in Belize

Gender Wage Gap in BelizeIn Belize, a country near the northeastern coast of Central America, women make up half of the population yet earn far less than their male counterparts. The gender wage gap in Belize remains one of the most consistent economic inequalities present in the county, rooted in labor market barriers, deep cultural norms and occupational segregation. However, policy reform and grassroots advocacy is starting to build momentum towards change in the country.

The Numbers Behind The Gap

In Belize, inequality is significantly concerning, especially the scale of wage. The Statistical Institute of Belize states that the average monthly income for people in Belize in 2021 was 1,498 Belize dollars, yet women earned an average of only $1,116, less than 24% of what men make.

While women make up 40% of Belize’s labor force, men make up nearly 60%. Women work largely in healthcare, tourism, education and nonprofit work, sectors of work that generally receive lower wages. Men work primarily in more high paying and physically demanding sectors, like agriculture, and construction.

Barriers Keeping Women Behind

Many interlinked barriers maintain the gender wage gap in Belize. A 2007 report from the Women’s Anti-Discrimination Committee that monitored CEDAW compliance found that women in Belize suffered from discriminatory hiring practices, sexual harassment, limited maternal protections and persistent pay inequality.

Household duties and family responsibilities present themselves as another difficult obstacle. Many Belizean women are unable to participate full time in the workforce, especially in lower-income communities and rural areas. This is due to caregiving labor that is largely unrecognized and unpaid, and yet falls disproportionately on them. Women in Belize seldom receive managerial positions, which is huge regarding earning gaps. The U.S. Belize Human Rights report confirms that men earn more per month than women because they hold a larger portion of senior management roles.

Legislative Steps

To address these inequalities, Belize has taken on many meaningful legislative steps over the years. Belize ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1990, an international treaty that obligated the country legally to eliminate discrimination for women and promote equal rights in all areas of life.

Belize amended its Labor Act in 2011 following concerns that CEDAW monitors brought up, penalizing unfair dismissals and establishing the Labor Complaints Tribunal. Women’s unemployment rates declined by nearly 5% between 2014 and 2015, and the portion of women obtaining university degrees has increased since those amendments took place.

In April 2024, Belize approved the Revised National Gender Policy from 2024-2030, supported by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The policy’s goal is to “achieve gender equity and equality and end discrimination against women and girls in Belize.” Addressing gender responsive education, healthcare, economic empowerment, women’s leadership and the end of gender based violence. It also aligns with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 5 on gender equality.

Organizations Leading the Charge

The National Women’s Commission (NWC) of Belize serves as the government’s primary advisory body on gender equality and women’s empowerment. After its establishment, the NWS coordinates the implementation of the National Gender Policy and advocates for CEDAW compliance between private and public sectors. Its goal is to recommend policy and legal changes that end discrimination against women and ensure that they have access to equal rights in practice, and not just on paper. The NWC conducted the first situation analysis of gender issues in Belize, and those findings developed the country’s first National Gender Policy in 2002.

The Government’s BOOST Program; Building Opportunities for our Social Transformation, turrets multidimensional poverty and uplifts female headed households through vocational training and cash transfers. A Decent Work country Programme launched in 2024 focuses specifically on economic empowerment for women, through skills training, labor rights awareness and access to financial resources.

A Path Forward

Belize’s wage gap isn’t isolated, but is the product of many structural inequalities in domestic caregiving, education and political representation. The World Economic Forum’s 2024 Global Gender Gap Index gave Belize a score of 0.07%, with political empowerment at a gap of 91%, showing that women are vastly underrepresented in decision making and leadership roles.

For Belizean women, the gap isn’t just a statistic, but it prevents them from building, achieving and earning. But Belize is finally no longer just acknowledging the issues but is creating systems to solve it.

– Saakshi Bhat

Saakshi is based in San Marcos, CA, USA and focuses on Global Health and Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Wikimedia Commons

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Closing the Gender Wage Gap in Equatorial Guinea

Gender Wage Gap in Equatorial GuineaDespite being one of sub-Saharan Africa’s wealthiest nations per capita, Equatorial Guinea has long failed to translate its oil-driven prosperity into equal economic opportunity for women. The gender wage gap in Equatorial Guinea persists due to a combination of deep-rooted social norms, educational disparities and legal gaps, but a landmark 2024 government initiative signals a genuine turning point.

A Wealth Gap Hidden in Plain Sight

Women hold only about 40% of positions in Equatorial Guinea’s total labor force, earning less than their male counterparts across sectors. Men overwhelmingly dominate the oil industry, which drives the country’s economy and commands significantly higher wages, leaving women concentrated in lower-paying agriculture and informal service work.

Informal social norms compound these structural barriers. According to the OECD’s 2023 Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), 55% of the population believes men make better business executives than women, and another 55% agrees that when jobs are scarce, men should have more right to employment than women. These attitudes narrow women’s economic opportunities even where formal legal protections exist.

Education and Opportunity

The gender wage gap in Equatorial Guinea also reflects a persistent educational gap. Girls, particularly those from rural and lower-income households, face significant barriers to completing secondary school. A high rate of child marriage contributes directly: the OECD SIGI reports that 30% of women aged 20 to 24 were married or in a union before age 18, compared to a world average of 26% and a regional African average of 31%.

Early marriage interrupts schooling and limits women’s lifetime earning potential, funneling them into lower-paying sectors while men gain access to the higher-wage positions that oil wealth generates.

Gender-Based Violence as an Economic Barrier

Gender-based violence further restricts women’s economic participation. The OECD SIGI finds that 46% of women aged 15 to 49 have experienced intimate partner violence at some point in their lifetime, which is above the African regional average of 33%. In the past 12 months alone, 26% of women reported experiencing such violence, compared to a regional average of 17%.

Legal gaps reinforce the problem. Equatorial Guinea does not criminalize domestic violence, and its definition of rape does not rest on the absence of consent. These shortcomings leave many women without legal recourse and undermine their ability to remain safe, productive and economically active.

Agenda Igualdad: A Historic Turning Point

Significant progress is underway. In May 2024, Equatorial Guinea held its first-ever National Forum on Gender Equality, titled “Agenda Igualdad.” Prime Minister Manuela Roca Botey chaired the three-day forum, which the Ministry of Social Affairs and Gender Equality organized with United Nations support. Government officials, civil society organizations, women activists and UN representatives all participated, building a unified roadmap for change.

The forum produced the Djibloho Declaration, a concrete action plan committing the government to combating gender-based violence through education and improved data collection, protecting the rights of women with disabilities and strengthening women’s economic capacities in commerce. The declaration also calls for mainstreaming gender considerations into all national policies.

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) played a central role, reaffirming the U.N.’s commitment to gender equality initiatives in the country. Just weeks after the forum, UNFPA led a five-day training workshop that equipped public officials with gender-based violence case management and victim referral skills.

Closing the Data Gap

One of the Djibloho Declaration’s most consequential commitments involves improving gender data collection, a critical step toward closing the gender wage gap in Equatorial Guinea. The OECD SIGI notes that a lack of gender-disaggregated data on social norms and economic outcomes currently prevents a comprehensive understanding of women’s rights and opportunities in practice.

Better data enables better policy, and better policy means a more equitable economic future. With the Agenda Igualdad framework now in place and UNFPA, UNICEF and civil society organizations working alongside the government, real momentum exists to close the gender wage gap in Equatorial Guinea for good.

– Amanda Draznin

Amanda is based in Fairfax, VA, USA and focuses on Good News for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Wikimedia Commons

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Addressing the Gender Pay Gap in the Gambia

Gender Pay Gap in the GambiaThe Gambia is a small nation nestled in the vicinity of the much larger Senegal, and its population thrives along the banks of the Gambia River. The country faces multiple problems of inequality, with the gender pay gap in the Gambia remaining one of the most persistent challenges. According to the United Nations Population Fund, the wage gap between males and females was almost 65% in 2022, ranking amongst the lowest in Africa and the world.

Women earn approximately $700 less than men. This means there is a higher chance for women to be in poverty than men, especially since the COVID-19 restrictions. In Gambia, women tend to work in the informal sector. This can range from working in the hospitality and tourism sector in urban areas to the agricultural sector in rural areas, where they constitute 50% of the workforce.

What Is the Gambia Doing Right?

  1. The Gambia, despite struggling with poverty, keeps its unemployment rate quite low, and the rate is only 5.8% in comparison to 7.2% for men. This improvement has expanded economic opportunities for Gambian women and increased their access to income.
  2. Gambian women now hold almost 30% of managerial and middle-management positions, reflecting this progress, which is significantly higher than in countries with higher literacy rates, such as Egypt. This share continues to rise as Gambia relies less heavily on agriculture.
  3. Improvements to Gambia’s education sector have driven greater female employment, leading to a literacy rate of 50.8% amongst women, in comparison to men at only 41.6%. This includes women outperforming men in increasing their reading and mathematics proficiency.

Where Is the Gambia Struggling?

  1. Informal Sector: While Gambia has improved female employment rates, according to the LFS, in reality, about eight out of 10 women worked in the informal sector, which widened the gender pay gap because men dominated higher-paying white-collar jobs.
  2. Financial Sector: As the IMF noted, only 2% of women hold bank accounts in contrast to 8% of men. Gambian women have a low rate of financial literacy and use of financial services, including loans for businesses. Limited access to financial services has restricted women-led businesses and startups across the country.
  3. Government Sector: While local governments have improved female representation, the central government and parliament still persist in a massive imbalance. The underrepresentation of women in politics weakens efforts to implement policies that reduce the gender pay gap.
  4. Global Events: The COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine have widened gender pay gaps. These crises directly affected nine out of 10 working women in the informal sector, especially in the tourism sector. Agricultural uncertainty also prevents many women from achieving optimal productivity.
  5. Inflation: Rising living costs highlight gender inequality by forcing many women to remain financially dependent on men. This exposes the reality of the unequal divide between the genders, as living costs force women to remain dependent on men.

Solutions

In 2024, the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Welfare announced a 10-year plan to increase the pace of removing gender inequality, with the gender pay gap in Gambia being at the forefront of the plan. The government plans to implement the strategy between 2025-2034.

In 2025, the Ministry launched a popular program in partnership with the UNDP called the Gender Equality Seal for Public Institutions. The program focuses on improving educational opportunities and workplace equality. It connects public institutions to other similar establishments around the world and prepares them to improve their inclusivity and accessibility skills for women.

The Path Ahead

High fertility rates among young women, driven by low female school enrolment, keep many Gambian women out of the workforce and contribute to pay inequality. Improvements in education have helped reduce fertility rates among young women. 

There is a chance to reduce gender pay gaps by only provisioning better educational resources, such as the construction of new schools, and giving them access to basic school supplies. 

Similarly, child marriage has been a persistent issue in Gambian society, but a higher educational rate amongst girls and even boys has led to improvement in changing perspectives and an increasing rate of marriages after the age of 18.

This shows that there is a chance for tackling the gender pay gap in the Gambia if there are some basic provisions of education and opportunities for young girls.

– Tanay Ashok Sonthalia

Tanay is based in Melbourne, Australia and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Pixabay

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Efforts To Close the Gender Wage Gap in Antigua and Barbuda

Gender Wage Gap in Antigua and BarbudaThe gender wage gap in Antigua and Barbuda affects economic opportunity for many women and families. Although the country has made significant progress in education and women’s participation in the workforce, challenges remain in ensuring equal access to higher-paying jobs and leadership positions. At the same time, government agencies and international organizations continue to invest in programs that strengthen women’s economic empowerment. These efforts help reduce poverty and create new pathways to financial independence across Antigua and Barbuda.

Limited data makes it difficult to measure the full extent of the gender wage gap in Antigua and Barbuda. According to UN Women, many gender-related labor indicators remain unavailable, highlighting the need for stronger data collection and analysis. As a result, researchers cannot calculate a comprehensive national gender wage gap figure. However, existing research suggests that women continue to face barriers in employment and income generation.

Unemployment and Poverty

A country gender assessment that the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) conducted found that women often experience higher unemployment rates and remain unemployed for longer periods than men. The assessment also noted that women remain concentrated in certain sectors of the economy, which can limit earning potential and career advancement. These challenges can affect household income and increase financial vulnerability, particularly for women who serve as primary caregivers or heads of household. 

Economic inequality can contribute to poverty by reducing access to stable income, savings and business opportunities. When women earn less or face barriers to employment, families may have fewer resources for education and health care. Addressing these challenges can strengthen economic growth while improving living standards for communities throughout the country.

Promoting Gender Equality

The government addresses gender inequality through the Directorate of Gender Affairs. The agency promotes gender equality and the integration of gender considerations into national policies and programs.

The Directorate of Gender Affairs supports initiatives that encourage economic participation and leadership opportunities for women. Its work includes advocacy and partnerships with local and international organizations. By incorporating gender-responsive planning into development strategies, policymakers can help ensure that economic growth benefits women as well as men.

The government has strengthened institutional support for gender equality through collaboration with regional and international partners. These efforts create more inclusive opportunities in employment and entrepreneurship.

The Expansion of Entrepreneurship and Vocational Training

One promising solution to the gender wage gap in Antigua and Barbuda involves expanding entrepreneurship and vocational training opportunities for women. The Gilbert Agricultural and Rural Development Center (GARD Center) has played an important role in this effort through its Young Women’s Empowerment Project.

The European Union provided approximately $1.3 million to support the project, which targeted more than 200 vulnerable women ages 35 and younger. The initiative provided vocational training and business development support designed to increase participants’ earning potential.

The program produced measurable results. According to the GARD Center, 132 women completed vocational training while 88 women completed entrepreneurship training. Participants gained skills in information technology and other fields that can provide higher earning opportunities than traditional employment sectors for women.

The project also established a Business Development Unit (BDU) that helped participants develop business plans and connect with financing opportunities. By supporting entrepreneurship and workforce development, the initiative helped women build sustainable sources of income while strengthening local economic resilience.

Looking Ahead

The gender wage gap in Antigua and Barbuda remains an important development issue, but continued investment in women’s economic empowerment offers reasons for optimism. Government agencies and nonprofit organizations have expanded opportunities for education, workforce training and entrepreneurship. These initiatives help women strengthen their earning potential and contribute to economic growth.

As Antigua and Barbuda continues to improve gender data collection and strengthen economic inclusion programs, more women may gain access to higher-paying careers and business opportunities. These efforts can help reduce poverty and support long-term economic growth. By investing in women’s success, Antigua and Barbuda continues to build a more inclusive and prosperous future for all.

– Archie Monton-Black

Archie is based in Bedford, UK and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Efforts To Reduce the Gender Wage Gap in Togo

Gender Wage Gap in TogoWomen contribute significantly to Togo’s economy as farmers, traders, business owners and employees. However, many women continue to earn less than men and face barriers that limit their economic opportunities. The gender wage gap in Togo reflects challenges related to employment opportunities, access to financial services and participation in higher-paying sectors of the economy.

Why the Wage Gap Exists

Several factors contribute to the wage gap between men and women in Togo. According to the World Bank Gender Data Portal, women are more likely than men to be employed in vulnerable forms of work. These jobs often provide lower and less stable incomes than formal employment and may offer fewer opportunities for career advancement and higher earnings.

Access to financial services is another challenge. Data from the World Bank Gender Data Portal shows that 45.3% of women in Togo had an account with a financial institution or mobile-money provider in 2024, compared with 70% of men. This gap in financial access can limit women’s ability to save money, obtain credit and invest in income-generating activities.

The Impact on Women and Families

The gender wage gap in Togo affects more than individual workers. Data that World Salaries compiled estimates that women in Togo earn an average annual salary of 5.81 million West African CFA francs compared to 6.84 million CFA francs for men. While earnings vary by occupation and region, the figures highlight a significant income gap between men and women.

Research published in the Journal of Economics and Development Studies found that women in rural Togo often earn less than men because they have less access to resources such as credit, technology and agricultural support. The study noted that improving access to these resources could help reduce income differences and strengthen local economies.

Efforts To Improve Equality

The Togolese government and development organizations have introduced programs to support women’s economic participation. According to Togo First, government spending dedicated to gender-related initiatives reached CFA32.02 billion in 2024. These initiatives aim to improve women’s access to economic opportunities, financial services and public support programs.

One of the country’s largest financial inclusion initiatives is the National Fund for Inclusive Finance (FNFI), which was created in 2013 and launched in 2014 to expand access to financial services for low-income Togolese citizens. The Republic of Togo reports that the fund works through banks and microfinance institutions to provide small loans to entrepreneurs, farmers and young people who may otherwise struggle to access credit.

As Togo First reported, the FNFI operates several programs, including APSEF for low-income entrepreneurs, AGRISEF for agricultural producers and AJSEF for young entrepreneurs. It further notes that the fund had distributed more than 113.6 billion CFA francs through 1.9 million loans by early 2025.

Final Thoughts

Reducing the gender wage gap in Togo remains an important challenge. As the World Bank noted, improving women’s access to education, financial services and economic opportunities can support broader development goals. Expanding opportunities for female entrepreneurs and workers may also help increase household incomes and strengthen economic growth.

While barriers remain, recent government initiatives and financial inclusion programs demonstrate ongoing efforts to support women’s economic participation. Continued investment in these areas could help create greater economic opportunities for women across Togo.

– Abisola Oladipupo

Abisola is based in Hatfield, UK and focuses on Good News for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Gender Pay Gap for Roma Women in North Macedonia

gender pay gap for Roma womenThe gender pay gap remains one of the most overt and measurable indicators of disparity globally, rooted in traditional attitudes that disproportionately assign unpaid domestic work to women. In North Macedonia, this gap persists at roughly 12%, often driven by the concentration of women in lower-paying sectors like care and education. However, the situation is most critical for Roma women, who face a ‘double-burden’ of gender inequality and social exclusion.

Due to a combination of rationed socio-economic rights and a discriminatory job market, Roma women are hence bound to a “vicious cycle of poverty.” In fact, the World Bank (2024) reports that 87% of the total Roma population in North Macedonia live in material deprivation, with women suffering the most severe impacts. Compounded by a staggering 81% NEET rate (Not in Education, Employment, or Training) among young Roma women aged 18-24, the depth of the pay disparity compared to both men and non-Roma women is a significant challenge that demands targeted intervention.

While the overall landscape of pay parity does not entertain a ‘quick fix’, dedicated programs and organizations are beginning to turn the tide. By focusing on formalizing labor and providing specialized entrepreneurship tools, the following three initiatives are creating a new blueprint to reduce the gender pay gap for Roma women in North Macedonia. 

1. The Roma Entrepreneurship Development Initiative (REDI)

The Roma Entrepreneurship Development Initiative (REDI) acts as a cornerstone for economic mobility by bridging the gap between “informal potential and formal enterprise” for marginalized groups. The initiative successfully lays the foundations for Roma people to build sustainable career portfolios through three primary objectives:

  • One-to-One Mentoring: REDI provides direct coaching focused on building essential business acumen, leadership skills and operational know-how.
  • Employment Support: The program offers comprehensive career guidance, including CV development and job placement.
  • Digital Transformation: REDI aids Roma-led businesses in adapting to a changing digital environment.

By taking a bottom-up approach, REDI has established a supportive framework through which Roma people and women are able to build their own opportunities. Within the first 6 months alone, REDI was able to map 140 Roma entrepreneurs and 273 unemployed Roma individuals. 

2. ROMANSE 

The ROMANSE (Social Entrepreneurship for Young Roma Women) project is a specialized initiative that the European Union funded. Established in April 2024 and set to run through March 2027, the project is a collaborative effort between the Roma Resource Centre and the Women’s Rights Initiative of Shuto Orizari in North Macedonia, alongside international partners from Greece and Belgium. The program aims to tackle the ‘double discrimination’ of gender and ethnicity by promoting social entrepreneurship to subsequently enable the integration of Roma women into society and the economic sphere. In order to fulfil this objective, ROMANSE utilizes several key strategies:

  • Capacity Building for CSOs: The project strengthens Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) to better support Roma women in business.
  • Targeted Training: Young Roma women receive specialized training to develop business skills.
  • Grant Schemes: ROMANSE provides essential funding through “grant schemes for grassroots CSOs.”
  • Community Awareness: By facilitating local partnership and awareness-raising activities, the project fosters a supportive environment for Roma-led businesses.

To date, the project has already initiated focus groups and digital training modules to ensure that young Roma women have the resources to secure equal-pay positions in the modern labor market. By focusing on sustainable business models rather than just temporary aid, the program is ensuring a long-term reduction in the wage gap for North Macedonia’s most vulnerable group.

3. The World Bank: Investing in the ‘Care Economy’

The Government of North Macedonia, with support from the World Bank, has restructured how care is valued in North Macedonia through its Social Services Improvement Project (SSIP). This initiative tackles the gender wage gap at its roots by formalizing historically unpaid domestic and caring roles into professional, stable career paths. The SSIP established a contracting model that combines “public resources with private expertise” that offers home-based care for the elderly and people with disabilities. Since 2021, the project has achieved significant measurable results for marginalized groups: 

  • About 773 professional caregivers have gained formal employment through SSIP-funded services, particularly women and Roma.
  • About 120 Roma women joined the workforce through an innovative social mentoring scheme, supported by World Bank and the European Union, that provided them with training and certifications as professional care providers.
  • Approximately 1,600 elderly beneficiaries now receive home-based support enabling them to live both more comfortably and independently.

Looking Ahead

Although there is still a long way to go to close the gender pay gap for Roma women, the efforts made by these programs demonstrate a clear path forward. By dismantling the barriers to formal employment, these programs are ensuring the integration of Roma women into economic society as well as laying the crucial foundation for future financial independence. 

The transition into the formal workforce offers far-reaching social benefits that extend beyond a paycheck. Stable, registered employment provides Roma women with increased security through personal pension contributions and the freedom that comes with financial autonomy. By utilizing a bottom-up approach, these development schemes do more than offer immediate relief; they actively dismantle the cycle of generational poverty. As education and employment rates rise among Roma women, the positive effects directly manifest in the next generation. Supported by a mother earning a steady, fair wage, young girls are no longer forced to enter the labor market prematurely or marry early as a means of survival. Instead, reducing the gender pay gap for Roma women safeguards their futures, paving the way for a generation of empowered young women, ultimately strengthening the economic fabric of the entire country.

– Jessica Daly

Jessica is based in Tunbridge Wells, UK and focuses on Good News and Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Unsplash

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8 Facts About the Gender Wage Gap in Vanuatu

Gender Wage Gap in VanuatuWomen are the primary drivers of Vanuatu’s agriculture, tourism and local commerce, yet they still face a massive gap in earnings compared to their male counterparts. This gender wage in Vanuatu hinders financial independence and increases the risk of poverty for families across the islands. Because women also shoulder the majority of unpaid labor, particularly in rural villages where resources are scarce, a lack of education and infrastructure often blocks their path to economic equality. Today, a mix of government agencies and global organizations are working to break these cycles and close the gender wage gap in Vanuatu.

1. Gap in Labor Force Participation

According to the 2020 National Population and Housing Census, the labor force participation rate for women sits at 42.1%, while men participate at a rate of 51.5%. This nearly 10% difference highlights how few women are entering the formal workforce. Beyond the numbers, women are also struggling with a “data gap.” The UN Women Data Hub notes that essential labor indicators, including specific pay gap statistics, are still missing for Vanuatu, making it difficult for policymakers to address the root of the problem. Limited access to formal employment also increases women’s vulnerability to poverty, especially in households that rely on a single income source.

2. Many Women Work in Informal Jobs

Most women in Vanuatu earn their living through informal channels like market vending, subsistence farming and handicraft sales. These jobs rarely offer legal protections or steady paychecks. While women make up between 75% and 90% of all market vendors in the Pacific, they are rarely given a seat at the table when it comes to managing those workplaces. Furthermore, approximately two-thirds of these women remain “unbanked,” meaning they lack the credit and financial tools needed to grow their operations. As a result, many women struggle to escape cycles of poverty because they cannot safely save money or expand their businesses.

3. Rural Communities Face Greater Economic Challenges

 Geography plays a major role in the gender wage gap in Vanuatu, as 77.7% of Vanuatu’s female population lives in rural areas. These women must constantly balance agricultural production with domestic duties. The 2022 National Agricultural Census found that women make up 51% of agricultural household members, yet they face the biggest hurdles in turning that labor into a stable income. Without reliable transportation or local banking, rural women are often locked out of the wider economy. These barriers make it harder for women in rural communities to earn stable wages and support their families financially.

4. Lowest Globally for Political Empowerment

Economic power and political power go hand in hand. The World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report recently ranked Vanuatu among the lowest in the world for political empowerment, with a score of only 0.6% parity. As of early 2024, women held a mere 2% of parliamentary seats. This lack of representation means that women’s perspectives are often missing when laws regarding labor rights, pay equity and economic development are written.

5. Poverty and Economic Inequality Continue To Affect Women

The gender wage gap in Vanuatu continues to drive poverty, especially among women living in rural areas and working in informal sectors. According to the Asian Development Bank, approximately 39% of Vanuatu’s population lives below the national basic needs poverty line. Employers often pay women lower and less stable wages through jobs such as market vending, subsistence farming and informal trade. In addition to earning income, many women also manage unpaid domestic labor and childcare responsibilities, which limits their ability to pursue higher-paying opportunities. The gender wage gap in Vanuatu therefore contributes to cycles of poverty that affect both women and their families, particularly during economic or climate-related crises.

6. UN Women’s Markets for Change

The Markets for Change initiative, launched in 2014, has become a vital lifeline for female vendors. The program has reached more than 50,500 people across 26 markets in the Pacific, including Vanuatu. By focusing on financial literacy and better market infrastructure, the project helps women transition from simply surviving to actually managing their own finances. A second phase of this project, backed by the Australian Government, is currently set to run through 2026. The program has also helped improve sanitation, safety and leadership opportunities within marketplaces, allowing women vendors to work in more stable environments. The initiative reduces poverty among market vendors and their families by improving women’s financial stability and workplace conditions across more than 50,000 participants in the Pacific.

7. The Government and International Partners

Vanuatu’s government is starting to take the income gap more seriously through its National Gender Equality Policy. This plan aims to boost productivity by supporting women-owned businesses and improving local marketplaces. These efforts reflect a growing consensus: closing the gender wage gap in Vanuatu is not just a matter of fairness, it is essential for the country’s economic future. These policies could reduce poverty by increasing women’s access to stable incomes in a country where around 39% of people already live below the basic needs poverty line.

8. SAVER PLUS

The SAVER PLUS initiative supports women working in Vanuatu’s informal economy by helping them open bank accounts, improve financial literacy and develop long term saving habits. Since 2019, the UNDP-ANZ partnership behind the initiative has delivered financial literacy training to more than 2,800 vendors and farmers across the pacific islands. More than 400 women in Vanuatu alone have received training in the past two years. In a 2025 cohort, 28 women market vendors completed a 10-month savings and financial literacy program that offered matched savings of up to VT26,000. These efforts are especially important because only 32% of female adults in Vanuatu previously reported owning a bank account, compared to the 41% of men. By increasing women’s financial independence and access to banking services, SAVER PLUS helps address poverty and supports efforts to reduce the gender wage gap in Vanuatu.

Looking Ahead

The gender wage gap in Vanuatu continues to limit economic opportunities for women across the country, particularly in rural and informal communities. However, government policies and international initiatives are helping women gain financial independence, improve workplace conditions and access banking services. As Vanuatu continues addressing gender inequality, closing the wage gap could play a major role in reducing poverty and strengthening the country’s long term economic stability.

– Nay Mohamad

Nay is based in Milan, Italy and focuses on Good News and Technology for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Pexels

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Missing Figures: The Gender Wage Gap in Turkmenistan

Gender Wage Gap in TurkmenistanTurkmenistan remains one of the most cut off countries to the rest of the world and because of this, there is a lot of unexplored and undisclosed information towards the gender wage gap in Turkmenistan. However, one can use the data that is available to gauge a better understanding of what the current situation may be and what the next steps are.

About the Gender Wage Gap in Turkmenistan

According to the Government of Turkmenistan’s 2022 Census, both men and women share similar employment and economic status within the country. This census did not measure the gender wage gap in Turkmenistan. Considering that, many Turkmen questioned the validity of this official data, believing that the government altered figures to meet the outward image of the country they were portraying.

However, one can use some of the other known laws Turkmenistan has in place to paint an image of the view that Turkmenistan society holds of women. Human Rights Watch reports that the country holds tight control over its civilians’ rights including restrictions on women and girls. The country’s schooling promotes abstinence with a lack of sexual education, domestic violence is not illegal and there are reports of authorities enforcing informal dress codes for women in the capital, Ashgabat. Additionally, reports alleged that authorities would threaten women’s dismissals if they did not follow the dress codes.

The Women of Cotton Picking

Agriculture is an important aspect of Turkmenistan’s GDP, with cotton farms being a large part of that. The International Labor Organization (ILO) conducted an observation of this industry and found that more than 90% of the cotton pickers were women. The ILO’s observation also found that these workers were often underpaid and the majority of which did not have written contracts.

Additionally, the ILO also found an element of forced mobilization within the industry. Around 12% of public employees participated in cotton picking during harvest season despite their original positions being that of cleaners, teachers or nurses. Workers reported that they could face consequences for refusing to help with cotton picking hence why the ILO was concerned that this work was forced. This presents evidence of a female dominated industry facing unfair compensation and working conditions.

The Turkmenistan Government did formally agree to improve this after the publication of ILO’s report. It increased the number of labor inspections occurring which resulted in the discovery of 2,269 violations and repercussions for those businesses. While this increase was not sufficient in covering the country’s full labor force, it does show the country taking action after the intervention of external organizations.

Obstacles for Turkmen Gender Equality

Currently, two aspects are guarding the steps towards uncovering the gender wage gap in Turkmenistan. The first is whether or not people can trust the statistics that the government is presenting and the second is the fears Turkmens may experience towards speaking out.

It is considered an act of treason in Turkmenistan to oppose the current government, and many activists and independent journalists have faced imprisonment or disappearances for doing so. There are Trade Unions, but the state appoints the leaders and so members may not be comfortable speaking freely about right violations.

Solutions

Pressures from external sources have the potential to make a bigger difference. After the ILO report, the Turkmenistan government did make changes to its labor regulations and there are other organizations that have been in contact with Turkmens to find out their reality.

The Turkmen Helsinki Foundation works with Turkmens living in and outside of the country, conducting interviews of people’s real lives. It has claimed that the gender wage gap in Turkmenistan is closer to 23% based on testimonies of civilians.

The United Nations (UN) reported that Turkmenistan still has a lot of work to do in terms of its legal frameworks in ensuring the achievement of gender equality and the country did sign onto the UN Development Programmes’ Gender Equality Strategy 2022-2025 which allowed the UN to work directly with the Turkmenistan government to make gender equality a priority so that both men and women had the same opportunities. The Programme in Turkmenistan received a BRONZE level Gender Equality Seal for reaching important milestone to progress gender equality in the Turkmen workplace.

Looking Ahead

There are still lots of missing figures and the gender wage gap in Turkmenistan is yet to be released in official government statistics. However, due to external pressure from Turkmen based organizations, the UN and the ILO, Turkmenistan is making slow progress to not only uphold the equal rights of women in the country but also to make its violations and progress more visible to the outside world.

– Alice Dunn

Alice is based in Falkirk, UK and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr