Archive for category: Gender Wage Inequality

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Addressing the Gender Wage Gap in Azerbaijan

Gender Wage Gap in AzerbaijanHistorically, in 74 countries, women have been confined to the four walls of their homes, limiting their activities to the domestic sphere. Azerbaijan is one of them. For decades, laws barred women from participating in the workforce, with 674 occupations exclusively reserved for men. For instance, regulations prohibited women from laying asphalt, working as train engineers or engaging in hazardous occupations. Women occupy only a small fraction of managerial positions, resulting in many of those roles going to men. Meanwhile, women’s monthly salaries are 35% lower than men’s salaries. Here is more information about the gender wage gap in Azerbaijan.

Decline of the Amazons-women

The history of Azerbaijan reveals that the country was once home to “Amazons-women,” a term used to describe women who possessed the best qualities traditionally attributed to men. Monuments in Azerbaijan commemorate successful women such as Queen Tomris and Queen Nushaba.

However, as history unfolded, Soviet rule suppressed women’s voices. Authorities pushed women into traditional household roles, primarily as mothers and caretakers. Today, men hold an overwhelming 90% majority in positions such as ministers, chairs of state committees and heads of large enterprises, while women hold the majority in supporting roles at 63.6%.

Poverty and the Gender Wage Gap in Azerbaijan

In Azerbaijan, the contrast between urban and rural women’s opportunities remains stark. Baku showcases women in leadership roles and thriving businesses, while rural areas, especially in the south, remain trapped in cycles of poverty, early marriage and economic exclusion. Many rural women lack access to education, pushing them into low- or no-income roles that cement financial dependence and limit future earning potential. This systemic lack of skills and access to better-paying jobs directly feeds into the national gender wage gap in Azerbaijan, as rural women often work in informal, low-paying sectors or perform unpaid household labor. Even with initiatives like UNDP–EU resource centers enabling small business creation, structural inequalities and limited market access keep rural women’s wages far below those of their urban counterparts, perpetuating poverty across generations.

Lag in Pay Parity

According to a 2023 report from the Azerbaijan Statistical Committee, female students make up 52% of higher education enrollment. However, this growth does not translate into equal remuneration. Women primarily work in health care and teaching, yet earn roughly half of what men in these professions receive. Workplace segregation remains a key driver of the wage gap. Social norms expect women to serve as mothers and limit interactions with men, which restricts professional networking opportunities necessary for career advancement. As a result, many women stagnate in low-paying jobs, constrained by societal expectations and fear of condemnation. Thus, many women continue to live under a figurative veil.

Reforms Open Doors, Yet Hurdles Remain

Gender wage disparity contributes to an estimated $160 trillion loss in human capital wealth globally. McKinsey reports that if women participated in the labor market at the same rate as men, global GDP could rise by $28 trillion.

Azerbaijan’s Parliament implemented a law called On amendments to the Labour code of Azerbaijan, which aims to reduce the number of prohibited professions from 674 to 204 for women. In contrast, the professions that continue to be prohibited are for pregnant women and women with children under the age of 1. 

The World Bank has been collaborating with Azerbaijan’s Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of Population (MoLSPP) to help women access STEM. The World Bank held a stakeholder roundtable on aiding the increase in the participation of women in the field of STEM. It also developed E-learning courses on occupational health and safety, violence and harassment, along with the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, including representatives from MoLSPP. However, deep-rooted patriarchal social norms continue to persist, which hinders progress.

Initiatives to Promote STEM for Women

Women today are significantly underrepresented in fields like STEM, comprising only 30.1% graduates. A handful of institutions have made progress in addressing this including:

  1. The AGA Group and the Demir Scholarship: The AGA group provides scholarships to female students studying in STEM, finance and medical fields at UFAZ university. Successful female candidates receive a monthly scholarship of 250-300 AZN based on their academic performance. 
  2. Sumgait Technologies Park and the Gentle Engineers Women’s Development Project: The STP Group of Companies created the “Gentle Engineers” women’s development project in April 2024 in partnership with the Education Development Fund. It offers scholarships and mentorship to 50 high-performing female students in technical fields (e.g., engineering disciplines). Recipients receive financial support, training and mentorship.
  3. Coca-Cola Icecek and the Equal Salary Certification: In September 2023, Coca-Cola İçecek (CCI), the regional bottling company operating in Turkey and several neighboring countries, including Azerbaijan, received the Equal-Salary Certification from the Swiss Equal-Salary Foundation. This confirms that the company pays men and women equally for equal work.

Looking Ahead

While policy reforms have begun to address Azerbaijan’s gender wage gap, sustainable change will depend on dismantling entrenched social norms and ensuring equal access to all levels of the labor market.

– Chhahat Kaur Gandhi

Chhahat is based in New Delhi, India and focuses on Business and New Markets for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Unsplash

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Poverty Reduction in Serbia: Supporting Marginalized Groups

Poverty Reduction in SerbiaNestled in the heart of the Balkans in Southeastern Europe, Serbia was formerly part of the Yugoslav Republic. After a period of economic uncertainty and fluctuating living standards in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Serbia is making strides in improving the quality of life of its citizens.

Despite a growing economy, shrinking unemployment and existing social initiatives, women and marginalized groups such as Roma are still more likely to experience poverty and face significant challenges to receiving social assistance and entering the labor force. To continue working towards economic growth and poverty reduction in Serbia, it must focus on uplifting these groups.

Economic Growth

In its attempts to expand the job market and fight unemployment, Serbia grew its economy 3.9% in 2024, bolstering its construction industry and services sector as the country takes on foreign projects, according to World Bank statistics. Growth is projected to continue throughout 2025, with expansion in the energy sector projected as well.

Thanks to this, the incidence of poverty fell to 7.7%, however, that number largely includes women and other vulnerable groups, and does not take into account the borderline at-risk-of-poverty rate, which was 19.7% for 2024, according to Serbia’s own survey statistics. These numbers highlight the need for more targeted social assistance to continue making economic gains and raising people out of poverty.

About the Gender Wage Gap in Serbia

In 2023, the employment disparity between men and women in Serbia was 13.3%, with even larger disparities for the Roma people as a whole, but especially Roma women, whose education and employment numbers lag far behind other demographics. These numbers represent untapped potential that could benefit industry enhancement, growth and poverty reduction in Serbia.

These groups are facing cultural barriers more than economic ones. Long-standing prejudices and traditionalist value systems are holding them back from accessing the Serbian labor market. When polled directly, 40% of women, both Roma and non-Roma, articulated their willingness to join the workforce and participate in training initiatives to improve their skills and gain experience.

Social Protection

For its impoverished population, Serbia’s social protection systems include social insurance, social assistance and social services. These cover entitlements like pension and disability insurance, health insurance and low-income household assistance. Of these systems, only two programs are specifically targeted towards its impoverished populations: A financial social assistance program and a child allowance program.

These programs do not adequately support the most at-risk and marginalized groups, however. Limited budgets and a lack of policy focus mean these entitlements do little in the way of poverty reduction in Serbia. A single mother with two children receives about 18,000 dinars (€153) a month, three times less than the cost of basic monthly necessities.

As of 2022, Serbia spends 19.5% of its GDP on social protection programs. While this is a relatively high number in line with the spending of new EU member nations, 71% of social protection spending is absorbed by social insurance (pensions, disability, healthcare), leaving little left over for targeted social assistance. In reality, Serbia spends only 5% of social protection expenditures on poverty-targeted programs, significantly less than EU countries.

Solutions

Recognizing the necessity for uplifting marginalized groups in the fight for poverty reduction in Serbia, the World Bank, in conjunction with the Serbian Institute of Ethnography and the Entrepreneurship Training Institute, launched a series of personal initiative training programs specifically aimed at supporting Roma women. These programs, begun in 2024, focus on resume/CV-writing, job interview roleplays and starting a business, with the overall aim of creating a more socially and economically equal society.

The programs are already yielding results. To date, nine participants in the PI trainings have become certified trainers themselves, mentoring more than 100 women in their local communities. Others have come through the program and used their knowledge to start their own businesses, like one woman who was able to open her own hair salon in Novi Sad.

The resultant economic independence these programs are facilitating will assist in overcoming the cultural biases that keep an untapped reserve of the population from contributing to the betterment of the country. The success of the PI trainings provides a roadmap to poverty reduction in Serbia targeting its most vulnerable and marginalized groups, and with that a more inclusive labor market and continued economic growth.

– Nikola Stojkovic

Nikola is based in Villa Park, IL, USA and focuses on Global Health for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Tackling the Gender Wage Gap in San Marino

Gender Wage Gap in San MarinoThe fifth-smallest nation in the world San Marino has made commendable progress on narrowing the gender wage gap in recent years. In 2025, the United Nations (UN) praised the nation’s initiatives to balance the labor force and tighten the gender wage gap across the region.

The gender wage gap in San Marino forms part of a larger trend of gender discrimination in the country. In the past, these issues have arisen from violence towards women and an educational curriculum that did not place enough emphasis on gender equality and human rights. Furthermore, men make up 73% of management positions in San Marino. This statistic reinforces how the female workforce is underrepresented in positions of authority – a narrative the country is striving to change.

Engulfed by the Italian mainland, the tightly knit community of San Marino have experienced a wave of changes in relation to gender legislation. Policies which range from education to a revised government office have positively impacted the lives of female citizens working in their country of origin. Here are three ways in which the contributions of both government and international organizations have helped to reduce the gender wage gap in San Marino.

Bolstering and Empowering the Female Workforce

In order to balance the female labor force, the government of San Marino has actively provided incentives to employers with regards to their hiring policy. The government significantly reduced taxation costs on female workers to increase the number of women in full time employment. 

Employers also made provisions to accommodate female needs in the workplace. These hinge around the conditions surrounding maternity leave. If a female worker had given birth to a child, she now has the option to accept a part time contract in order to balance family responsibilities. This choice has provided female employees with a degree of economic stability.

Furthermore, there are developed plans for a new Office of the Ombudsman to be implemented in 2026. This office provides an outlet where workers can raise issues which have arisen at the workplace including ‘combatting discrimination.’ This political initiative grants women an opportunity to question matters regarding their wage and all aspects of their working environment.

Long-Term Financial Transparency and Security

With data scarcely published on the gender wage gap in San Marino, recent developments to showcase financial transparency statistics ensure that international organizations can monitor the progress being made. In 2002, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) placed San Marino on the ‘grey list’ for not publicly sharing data collated on tax information. Fast forward to 2025, San Marino is successfully complying with the demands that the OECD expects and is no longer on the list. These measures ensure that San Marino regularly and publicly shares its financial information, which changes its previous connotations with an unwillingness to cooperate.

Denouncing Gender Based Discrimination

The wider narrative of government gender based policy importantly highlights a shift towards improving the working environment for women in San Marino. The government is currently processing a bill which provides women under the age of 35 with the guidance to start their own e-business. These legislative measures aim to provide women with the appropriate support previously received by their male counterparts.

On an institutional level, educational reforms have also contributed to a broader notion of gender equality in San Marino. An open exhibition, which featured the works of primary and secondary school children, was made accessible to the general public on the ‘fight against violence against women’ in 2025. In addition to this showcase, the University of San Marino has introduced higher educational modules addressing gender based issues and patterns of discrimination. These public initiatives highlight a government priority placed on promoting gender equality.

Looking Ahead

Despite the nation attracting little attention from global media outlets, it is important to recognize the measures that are occurring to improve the gender wage gap in San Marino. Regular discussions with international organizations have ensured that women working in San Marino have received financial support in relation to maternity. Widespread reforms in both the educational and employment sectors highlight the nation’s efforts to combat unequal pay and wider discriminatory practices. San Marino’s recent commitments to gender based policy reinforces how tackling the gender pay gap is a global issue no matter the size of a country’s population.

– Ash Fowkes-Gajan

Ash is based in London, UK and focuses on Good News and Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Unsplash

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Strides to Lower The Gender Wage Gap in Yemen

Gender Wage Gap in YemenThe gender wage gap is a global problem. Women earn less money than their male counterparts in the same position. All because they are women and are deemed lesser than men, even if they go above and beyond. However, women can still earn enough in most countries to make a living. In Yemen, though, the majority of women are not even working due to traditional gender roles. Men are usually the breadwinners, while women stay at home to help with children.

Gender Wage Gap in Yemen

The World Bank data for Yemen shows that only 4.9% of women are in the labor force. Only 54% of women are literate, which indicates that women are not receiving proper education. To go along with this, 41.9% of girls complete lower secondary school compared to 55.7% of boys. Even if women can participate in the workforce, more than half of them are in a vulnerable employment position. This means that they do not have protection against any economic shocks, making them more likely to fall into poverty. Because of this, only 4.5% of women hold senior and middle management positions, the lowest amount in all economies.

The UNDP’s Efforts to Promote Gender Equality in Yemen

Yemen has launched the Strengthening Institutions and Economic Resilience in Yemen (SIERY) project to not only promote gender inclusivity but also help educate women and teach them the necessary skills to enter the labor force. With economic resilience, they can create more jobs and provide a stable economy, leaving women less vulnerable to market crashes.

In its efforts to support women and youth, UNDP helped build schools along with maternity and children’s hospitals. The organization has also installed solar power systems so young women can receive a proper education, leading to more women being educated in a safe environment. To help women in the workforce, the UNDP has helped more than 80 women build businesses via grants and loans, allowing them to be self-sustaining for their families, leading to a better quality of life. The business these women have created for themselves: Sesame products.

Sesame Processing Changed Women’s Lives

Among the UNDP’s interventions was giving women the opportunity to learn how to process sesame and create products from it. The UNDP states that “The curriculum included modules on food processing, sesame oil extraction, soap and scrub making, sesame paste (tahini) production, branding, packaging, and foundational business skills,” giving them the tools to not only make a living, but to boost the economy as well.

Sara, a woman who was displaced because of conflict in Yemen, has become the breadwinner for her family. She said, “The course also gave me confidence to start my own small business to support my family and offer high-quality local products to the community.” This gave her the ability to support her family and community at the same time.

Fatima, a mother of three, stated: “…we are using locally grown sesame, rather than relying on imported raw materials. I have already started making soaps and creams at home, and the response has been very positive.” This shows how this program has created a long-term business for women to stay in the workforce.

Shaimaa shared, “My business is allowing me to earn an income, support my family and meet market demand for quality sesame products.” This supports the UNDP’s mission to create a more stable economy along with meeting supply and demand. The sesame is also local, ensuring that the women do not have to rely on imports. The UNDP’s SIFEY project has given countless women and children education, jobs, and safety, leading them to live better and more fulfilling lives.

Next Steps: A Conflicted Future

Humanitarian aid is still crucial in Yemen due to its civil war. The Human Rights Watch states how “only 21 of 88 wells linked with Taizz’s public water supply network are operational,” which has led citizens to pay enormous fees for clean water access, or try to harvest rain water that could be riddled with diseases.

The war has led women and men alike to be unemployed and displaced. However, women are continuing to receive education, which has helped reduce the gender wage gap in Yemen, giving them have a stable source of income for their families. For Yemeni women, the future is clouded, but having resources for education and employment can help them wade through rough waters.

– Alexis Thomas

Alexis is based in Raleigh, NC, USA and focuses on Technology and Global Health for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Everything To Know About the Gender Wage Gap in Botswana

Gender Wage Gap in BotswanaBotswana is an upper-middle-income country in Southern Africa, known for its diverse wildlife. However, for women, the gender wage gap in Botswana persists in employment. Although some policies for women’s rights have made improvements over the years, the country still has further to go in achieving equal pay. 

Wage Differences  

The World Statistics Congress has reported that women in Botswana earn 82.3% of the male average earnings each month. Male citizens earn 17.7% more than their female coworkers, which creates a gender inequality.

According to the World Bank, the Botswana government has commented that it wants to work towards gender equality. In 1996, Botswana supported the UN convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Botswana has also implemented the Economic Inclusion Act of 2021, which aims to help women and targeted citizens contribute to the country’s economic growth.

Legal Acts 

Botswana has implemented some Acts to try and combat the challenges that women face. One of these is the Domestic Violence Act of 2008, which makes domestic violence a criminal offence and helps victims to receive protection. Another piece of legislation in favor of women’s rights is the Abolition of the Martial Power Act of 2004, which abolished the legal right that a husband had over his wife in marriage. 

Botswana has not taken any legal action to protect women from the gender wage gap in Botswana. It still needs to legally address issues such as maternity leave and protecting women from harassment in their jobs. 

The government has shown their support for women in the workplace by supporting programs such as the Women’s Economic Empowerment programme. Oxfam’s program promoted gender equality and aimed to make sure that people valued women’s work.

Disparities for Women in Employment 

Since 1991, vulnerable employment for women has increased in Botswana, as the World Bank reported. Vulnerable employment for women can lead to a lack of social protection and leaves them more at risk of falling into poverty. Among women, vulnerable employment is 29.4%. 

The labor force participation rate for women in 2024 compared to men is less, which could be due to gender-based discrimination. The labor force participation is 73.4% for men and 63.8% for women. However, these statistics are an increase from 1990 statistics.

EntreprenHER Programme 

The EntreprenHER programme is an initiative that is in partnership with De Beers Group and UN Women South African Multi-Country Office. The EntreprenHER programme wants to boost women-owned micro-enterprises across three years until 2026. The program will be across three southern African countries, which are Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. EntreprenHER wants to coach 1,500 women entrepreneurs by 2026. 

This is a move in the right direction for the closing of the gender wage gap in Botswana since it gives women more training to become their own entrepreneurs. Botswana currently has overtaken targets and now has 159 women with capacity building in Improve Your Business training. 

A participant of the program from Botswana, Lemogang Bathobasele, who owns a business called Car Diagnosis Solutions & Repairs and is a mechanic, has said, “I look forward to implementing what I learned this week and growing my business to hire more women electricians.” 

Women’s participation in male-dominated fields helps Botswana become closer to achieving gender equality since this program gives them opportunities in the field that they may not have had otherwise.

Education and Opportunities  

Human Development reports have noted the inequality between men and women in Botswana. Parliament comprises 8.5% women and 91.5% men. This demonstrates the lack of opportunities women receive compared to men which widens this issue of the gender wage gap in Botswana. 

Girls in Botswana have a higher rate of completing lower secondary education, with 90.3% of girls as of 2022 completing lower secondary education compared to boys, which is 86%. This could be considered a move forward with girls receiving their education, which can help them to obtain better-paying jobs. 

The World Bank has stated that many poorer and less educated women work in the private sector but also unpaid family work. This illustrates how women in poverty are more susceptible to the gender wage gap in Botswana.

Bridging the Gap 

While Botswana is actively making changes to their country and creating legal acts to improve women’s rights, it is evident that there is still further to go to close the gender wage gap in Botswana. With the help of programs like EntreprenHER, Botswana will be able to work towards a closer bridge in the gender wage gap.

– Alice Haston

Alice is based in Liverpool, UK and focuses on Good News and Global Health for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Unsplash

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Gender Wage Gap in Mauritius: Technology and Market Growth

Gender Wage Gap in MauritiusMauritius, commonly known as the paradise island of the Indian Ocean, stands at the crossroads of progress and opportunity. Despite its rapidly evolving economy, one gap remains stubbornly wide: the gender wage gap. In 2024, women earned 20% less than men on average, as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported. Meanwhile, in 2020, Statistics Mauritius estimated that 11% of women were living below the poverty line as compared to 9.6% of men, thus highlighting the fact that women are at a higher risk of poverty.

In the private sector, the gap is even wider as women earn around 30% less per hour as compared to men. This disparity pushes well-educated women into a poverty cycle or economic insecurity. It primarily affects women who work in growth industries who receive a fraction of what similarly qualified men earn.

The gender wage gap in Mauritius is not merely a statistical issue. It is a reflection of deep-rooted systemic inequalities. However, by embracing inclusive business models and digital solutions, the country has the tools to make equal pay more than just a goal.

Sectoral Divide and Underrepresentation

According to the World Bank Blogs, the rate of labor force participation of women is 57%, while men account for 88%. Although women comprise the majority of students in tertiary educational institutions, their participation in the labor force is significantly lower than men. This gap in participation increases women’s poverty risk as unpaid domestic duties significantly reduce earning opportunities. This also indicates that the educational achievements of young women do not guarantee employment opportunities or equal pay. Thus, women are overqualified yet underpaid. 

Even though tech-driven industries are growing at a rapid rate, women hold only 10-15% of ICT roles. This is because women are concentrated in lower-paying fields such as health, education, hospitality and administrative roles. Hence, there is a low representation of women in ICT and manufacturing. This is mainly because women tend to lean towards jobs in lower-paying fields. Employers often underpay women in ICT roles compared to their male counterparts, even when they work in the same fields.

Societal Norms Attributed To Working Women

Social norms and cultural values are factors that also contribute to widening the gender pay gap. However, they tend to go unnoticed. Society often assigns traditional roles to Mauritian women as the providers of children and takes care of the elderly. Many still view women as the primary caretakers of the family who are also responsible for a plethora of domestic activities. Working women have to manage these household duties on top of working a full-time job. 

According to the AfroBarometer 2017, more than seven in 10 Mauritians report that they prefer that the role of women in the family consists of being responsible for the home and child care. Moreover, working women devote three times more of their day than working men to domestic chores and child care. This is because men are considered breadwinners and their main role is to bring a consistent flow of income into the household. Therefore, working women have reduced earnings time as they contribute a large share of their time to household duties. This, in turn, leads to a higher risk of poverty for women.

Solutions and Innovations

The gender wage gap in Mauritius reflects systemic inequality. However, various promising solutions suggest a future of equal pay. For instance, initiatives such as PwC’s EQUAL-SALARY certification encourage companies to review their salary structures and publicly pledge to uphold equal pay for equal work. 

Mauritius updated its Workers’ Rights Act in 2019 to include flexible hours and compressed workweeks, along with mandatory paid paternity leave. The government designed these policy shifts to ease gender imbalances and support women in staying active in their careers. Thus, efforts to reduce the gender wage gap in Mauritius are gaining momentum through policy reforms.

Furthermore, organizations and institutions are launching new workshops, roundtables and scholarship programs to encourage women to be more involved in the ICT sector as mentorship plays a key role in building skills and confidence.

Looking Ahead

With such initiatives in place and actions across policy, business and education, Mauritius is getting closer to bridging the gender wage gap. By investing in digital literacy, promoting equal pay policies and encouraging women’s involvement in high-growth industries, Mauritius has the opportunity for a future of equal pay. Tackling the gender wage gap in Mauritius could unlock significant economic and social benefits. It is not just an equity issue, it is a poverty‑reduction strategy.

– Anagha Rajithkumar

Anagha is based in Charlottetown, Canada and focuses on Business and Technology for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Understanding the Gender Wage Gap in Mozambique 

Gender Wage Gap in MozambiqueMozambique is among the poorest countries in the world with a GDP per capita of just $647 and ranking 182nd on the Human Development Index. Among the myriad challenges Mozambique faces as a result of this multidimensional poverty is its gender wage gap, which represents the average income of women compared to men. Addressing the gender wage gap in Mozambique is an important issue of social justice. 

Mozambique’s situation is typical of its regional context. In East and Southern Africa, women earn on average 21% less than men. This unjust state of affairs reflects broader regional gender inequalities relating to education access, as well as deep-rooted attitudes regarding social roles. Here are three key factors affecting the gender wage gap in Mozambique:

1. Women Work Fewer Hours Than Men

The gender wage gap in Mozambique is only 1.6% at the hourly level, but 14.9% at the monthly level. This means that women earn significantly less than men throughout the course of the month, embedding long-term income disparities. One explanation for this is the substantial role of unpaid domestic labor such as child-rearing, which women usually perform, often rendering them unable to work for as many hours as men. Discriminatory working practices are also a concern in this regard.

2. Social Attitudes to Gender Are Highly Restrictive

Gender roles in Mozambique are traditional and deep-rooted. The largest employment sectors for men are “masculine” in nature — manufacture, construction and transport — while for women, the largest sectors are household work and education. Unpaid domestic labor reflects a social contribution that is ‘unseen’ in terms of income. Estimates have indicated that 37% of women and men would need to switch occupations in order to reverse the gender wage gap that these imbalances cause.

Restrictions upon women’s autonomy in Mozambique begin in childhood. About 53% of Mozambican women marry before the age of 18, while 153 of every 1,000 adolescent females (15-19 years old) gave birth in 2023. These alarming figures demonstrate how many young women end up in domestication before they have any notions of formal employment.

3. Educational Attainment Is Highly Imbalanced

The gender wage gap in Mozambique is more pronounced (23.4%) for those who only have a primary level of education than for those who have a post-secondary level of education (13.8%). This is in the context of more girls completing secondary education than boys. Therefore, women who fail to complete secondary education end up with greater wage imbalances and worse socioeconomic prospects.

Moreover, the female literacy rate in Mozambique is substantially lower than the male literacy rate (49% to 72%). This prevents vast numbers of women accessing higher education and the higher-skilled, higher-paid employment opportunities that it beckons.

How the Gender Wage Gap in Mozambique Affects Women

One impact of the gender wage gap in Mozambique is the financial disempowerment of women, including through a lack of financial independence and long-term economic security. Significantly fewer women than men have a banking account (38.7% to 61%), and fewer women than men receive support for the future through pensions or life insurance. Low literacy rates and education levels compound this impact, making many women dependent upon their husbands. The gender wage gap can therefore be understood both as a symptom of and as a cause of restrictive societal expectations of women: it reinforces the deep-rooted inequalities within Mozambican society that give rise to it in the first place.

Reasons To Be Hopeful

Foreign governments and NGOs are offering development aid to target the root causes of the gender wage gap in Mozambique as a matter of priority. For example, Canadian development aid funds the Empowering Adolescent Girls to Learn and Earn (EAGLE) scheme, which aims to help 4,200 adolescent girls in Mozambique improve their educational attainment. Working with community leaders in the highly impoverished Monica and Sofala provinces, the scheme focuses on girls who have previously been forced out of school through marriage or pregnancy. The program provides accelerated literacy, numeracy, business and vocational classes, equipping the girls with important life skills required to enter formal employment and become more economically empowered. So far, EAGLE has helped enroll almost 1,000 girls in primary school, and 99% of participants have passed their National Literacy and Numeracy exams.

Furthermore, the World Bank is aiming to increase the number of girls completing primary and secondary education on a large scale through its Improving Learning and Empowering Girls in Mozambique program. Through a $299 million funding commitment from the U.S., the initiative has significantly increased the primary level grade retention of girls living in highly impoverished areas by providing resources such as textbooks and equipment and leading teacher training programs. At least 55,000 students have benefitted so far.

Looking Ahead

Although the gender wage gap in Mozambique appears to be an insurmountable challenge, development aid programs such as these indicate that where there is the political and economic will to address deep-rooted gender inequalities, issues of female economic empowerment can slowly be overcome. 

– Joseph Webb

Joseph is based in Norwich, UK and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Wikipedia Commons

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Tackling the Gender Wage Gap in Kazakhstan 

Gender Wage Gap in KazakhstanKazakhstan, the largest economy in Central Asia, has achieved notable advancements in enhancing women’s access to education and formal employment. However, the gender wage gap in Kazakhstan endures, with women consistently earning less than men in the majority of industries. This imbalance constrains economic progress and perpetuates obstacles in attaining fair labor conditions.

Overview of the Gender Wage Gap in Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan has achieved near-parity in education, yet there is still a large wage gap between men and women. In the World Economic Forum’s 2024 Global Gender Gap Report, the nation had an overall score of 0.710, placing it 76th out of 146 nations. With a score of 0.751 for Economic Participation and Opportunity, it shows modest advancements in workforce participation but persistent differences in leadership positions and pay.

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), which cites Kazakhstan’s Bureau of National Statistics, men continuously earn more in almost every industry, with the average gender pay gap narrowing to 21.7% in 2021 before widening again to 25.2% in 2022.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) reports that, on average, women in Kazakhstan only make 67% of what men do, with the disparity being particularly noticeable in high-paying industries like banking, construction and transportation. The research also emphasizes how under-representation in leadership positions and vocational segregation exacerbate this disparity.

Contributing Factors

A closer look at the factors influencing Kazakhstan’s gender pay wage identifies a number of recurring problems:

  1. Industrial and Occupational Segregation: Women’s over-representation in lower-paying sectors and under-representation in high-paying industries contributed to the wage gap’s consistent 30% level, according to a 2024 research that looked at Kazakhstan from 2011 to 2019. Additionally, the investigation identified “industrial segregation” as one of the primary reasons for the wage gap.
  2. Sticky Floors and Glass Ceilings: Experts point to structural trends such as the “sticky floor,” which traps women in low-paying jobs and the “glass ceiling,” and restricts their access to senior positions. Corporate and social conventions play a major role in creating these obstacles.
  3. The Cost of Motherhood and Unpaid Care Work: Due to workplace prejudice, shortened workdays and career disruptions, mothers in Kazakhstan have financial disadvantages. According to other research, women devote a disproportionate amount of their time to unpaid domestic labor, which exacerbates economic inequality.
  4. Stereotypes Based on Culture and Gender: Traditional gender norms remain widespread in Kazakhstan. According to a UNDP poll, 96% of participants had at least one prejudice against women, such as the idea that men are more qualified for positions of leadership and business. Gender stereotypes restrict women to jobs associated with maternity, childcare and unpaid domestic work, which hinders their ability to progress professionally, according to research on female civil service executives.

Despite Kazakhstan’s high levels of female education and employment access, the pay disparity is maintained by a combination of overlapping structural factors, including caregiving duties, leadership restrictions, industry segregation and deeply rooted prejudices.

Innovation & Solutions

Across Kazakhstan, government bodies, international organizations and civil society are taking concrete action to narrow the gender wage gap in Kazakhstan:

  1. The UNDP-Led Equal Pay Campaign: The UNDP in Kazakhstan started the “Closing the Gender Pay Gap” campaign in May 2023 with the goal of encouraging more openness and communication between businesses in order to narrow the pay gap, which was 25% in 2021 and 21.7% in 2022. The campaign emphasizes the need for gender-responsive workplace regulations and highlights factors, such as career disruptions brought on by parenthood.
  2. National Policy & Legal Reform: Kazakhstan’s government action plan for 2024–27 incorporates gender equality into national budgeting and labor laws while promoting equal rights and opportunities for men and women. In order to monitor pay trends and assess labor policy, the plan calls for the collecting of gender-disaggregated data.
  3. Strengthened Family Policy and Legal Framework: According to an OECD analysis, Kazakhstan’s National Gender Equality Strategy (2006–16) and Equal Rights and Opportunities statute (2009) established important foundations. The government is now putting its “Family and Gender Policy Concept 2030” into practice, with an emphasis on supporting working parents, enhancing women’s economic involvement and incorporating gender equality into legislation.
  4. Regulation of Equal Pay in the Workplace: Kazakhstan scored 75.6 out of 100 in the World Bank’s 2023 “Women, Business and the Law” assessment, which indicates that the country has acceptable legislation pertaining to marriage and mobility but falls short in terms of pay equality and labor rights. Ongoing initiatives to create fair remuneration guidelines and enhance workplace transparency are filling up these regulatory gaps.

Looking Ahead

Despite Kazakhstan’s advancements in education and labor market participation, the gender wage gap continues to be a significant obstacle to complete economic equality. However, momentum is building. Through international cooperation, government-led changes, and growing public awareness, Kazakhstan is creating the framework for more equitable economic development. Addressing the gender wage gap in Kazakhstan will need sustained investment in legal enforcement, transparency and assistance for women in under-represented fields. Kazakhstan has the potential to not only lessen pay gaps domestically but also serve as a strong model for the larger Central Asian area if these initiatives gather momentum.

– Ray Bechara

Ray is based in Glasgow, Scotland and focuses on Technology and Solutions for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Wikimedia Commons

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The Gender Wage Gap in the DRC 

Gender Wage Gap in DRCIn Sub-Saharan Africa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a nation that is rich in mineral resources, including cobalt, gold, coltan, copper and diamonds. The deposits provide citizens of the DRC with employment opportunities, as these materials are essential for products manufactured for international markets, most notably, cobalt. Cobalt is an essential mineral used in lithium batteries for many electronics, such as smartphones, electric vehicle (EV) batteries and laptops. Considering that the country is this rich in resources, it is difficult to understand why it suffers from an economic disparity that influences the gender wage gap in the DRC.

Unfortunately, due to the rapidly increasing demand for these resources, many developed nations and privatized corporations will continue to purchase products from artisanal mines that operate without proper labor laws, thereby compromising the safety and health of artisanal miners in the DRC.

In addition to inadequate wage employment, the DRC has faced continuous entrepreneurial issues due to the lack of aid following political disruptions (i.e., the Congolese Civil War) that could go towards education and other resources that may help citizens thrive, and the nation’s economy make an upturn, equaling the drastic gender wage gap in the DRC.

Women in the Workplace

Whether it is direct or indirect, women are one of the primary victims of economic instabilities in the DRC. Per data that the World Bank received, out of the 62% of women who participate in the labor market, 6.4% of women earn wages from an employer. That percentage is nearly quadrupled in the case of men. Overall, women in the DRC are found less likely to work than men by 8.2%, and those women who do work earn 77.3% less than men—as for women entrepreneurs, they earn 66.5% less in profits than their male counterparts.

After conducting a study on the discrepancy of women participating in the DRC’s economy, Darla Urmiche Diya Lipoko, a published student at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, breaks down consistent challenges women of the DRC encounter to gain financial stability. One of her primary points in the research focuses on access to education, stating that “Young women regularly drop out of school because of early marriage and pregnancy, hence leading to a gender gap in training,” due to socio-financial and sociocultural factors.

The Domino Effect of Exploitation

Although socio-financial and sociocultural issues are deeply rooted obstacles in the gender wage gap in the DRC, it is not necessarily as surface-level as one may believe. As previously stated, the economy of the DRC primarily relies on artisanal mining under exploitative conditions to provide their biggest exports. While male and female artisanal miners operate under the same circumstances and are nearly equally represented—40% of recorded artisanal miners were female per World Bank in 2017—they face the brunt of the abuse, whether they are employed or not. According to a EUREKA: Social and Humanities article, “Young women in the DRC are especially powerless as they frequently experience early marriages, undesired pregnancies, and sexual abuse.”

It is not only important to advocate for essential aid in the DRC, but it is vital that measures are taken to subsume labor and health regulations in small businesses that provide vital exports. If not, then it is probable that exploitative natures could continue to prevent women from accessing resources to lead successful lives, “Numerous young women in rural areas that are obliged to perform family chores every day instead of attending school can also explain that gender gap,” continuing the cycle of abuse among the citizens of the DRC.

Addressing the Issue and Possible Solutions

Currently, multiple global advocacy organizations are developing programs to aid the women of the DRC to achieve financial success, benefiting the economy of the country.

One of the most prominent programs that aims to reduce the gender wage gap in the DRC is the GLE Project, which has boosted primary school availability and education to all children, especially young girls and women. To welcome them into an environment where they can thrive, the Ministry of Primary, Secondary and Technical Education administered a “Girls’ Learning and Empowerment Project to improve safe and equitable access, particularly for girls, and teaching-learning conditions at secondary schools in selected provinces. This includes the creation of safe and inclusive school environments and strengthening of the curriculum, textbooks, and teaching-learning materials,” per the World Bank.

That being said, the GLE Project isn’t the only project assumed to fix this ongoing issue; the DRC Eastern Recovery Program (STEP) has indirectly benefited the success of many young women, slowly tightening the gender wage gap. The program has been active for the past 10 years, aiding many citizens living in poverty. The Project has committed $700 million to this cause program, which is currently exceeding many of the targeted goals, like “Women being indirect beneficiaries,” exceeding the original objective for the number of lives positively impacted.

Looking Ahead

While both programs show considerable promise, it is important to protect and support the laborers and small businesses that operate under exploitative conditions. Per the World Bank, “To close economic gender gaps, projects should consider providing childcare and implementing gender transformative interventions engaging men, which have been shown to increase men’s contribution to household responsibilities,” which may be harder to execute without providing everyone with healthy work environments.

– Sam Barbagallo

Sam is based in Tewksbury, MA, USA and focuses on Business and New Markets for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Unsplash

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Addressing the Gender Wage Gap in Sudan

Gender Wage Gap in SudanThe pursuit of gender equality is an international imperative, and understanding the complexities of inequalities, such as the gender wage gap, proves critical to fostering economic empowerment. In Sudan, gender discrimination in pay significantly reverses overall development and poverty reduction. Although continued war undoubtedly widens such inequalities, comprehending the causes behind the gender wage gap is vital for implementing effective solutions. 

The Depth of Economic Disparity

Sudan faces one of the largest gender pay gaps on the continent. Recent reports indicate that, on average, Sudanese women earn an astonishing 82% less than men for performing the same work. The gender wage gap in Sudan significantly surpasses the global average and underscores the need for immediate, specific interventions.

Directly contributing to this gap, the female labor force participation rate in Sudan stood at a low 14.5% in 2022, down from earlier figures and significantly below the global average. This low participation actively inhibits women’s economic independence and their right to earn a fair wage. Furthermore, occupational segregation frequently confines women to specific areas, such as agriculture or unstructured trade, which typically offer lesser wages and limited opportunities for advancement. Such labor segregation directly limits their earning potential and maintains the wage disparity. A lack of transparency in compensation schemes and discriminatory recruitment practices also increase the wage gap. Without clear guidelines and supervision, inequalities easily perpetuate unimpeded.

Societal and Structural Barriers

Institutionalized cultural practices and traditional gender roles largely explain the gender wage gap in Sudan. In most instances, these roles push women to the outskirts of the formal economy, concentrating them in lower-paying jobs or the informal sector where their work often faces devaluation. Educational disparities also account for a significant share of the gender gap in pay. Though some improvements exist, fewer than half of girls finish primary school, and many do not complete their education. Less literacy among women, particularly those from poorer backgrounds, limits their access to better-paying, more skilled jobs. While entrepreneurial activities among many Sudanese women are rampant, often necessitated by circumstances, they face serious constraints. These include restricted access to finance, a lack of knowledge and skills in business and socio-cultural values that restrain their mobility and prospects.

The intersection of gender and poverty is particularly stark in Sudan. While the overall national poverty rate stood at 46.5% in 2009 for North Sudan, recent data from 2021 indicates that 52.3% of the population is considered multidimensionally poor, with an additional 17.7% vulnerable to multidimensional poverty. Women, especially those without assets, private businesses, or education, are disproportionately affected, with studies showing that 90% of women with high economic dependency live below the poverty line. This direct correlation between the gender wage gap and women’s poverty rates highlights how limited economic opportunities and lower earnings trap women in a cycle of destitution, further exacerbated by their vulnerable employment status. For instance, in 2022, 55.5% of women in Sudan were in vulnerable employment, compared to 36.1% of men, meaning they are less likely to have formal work arrangements, social protection or safety nets.

Conflict’s Devastating Impact

Ongoing socio-political instability and conflict severely impede women’s access to employment and education, thus worsening the gender wage gap in Sudan. Displacement, destruction of infrastructure and breakdown of services disproportionately fall on women and girls, leaving them in increasingly marginalized economic positions. The conflict has also generated an enormous increase in demand for gender-based violence services, placing women and girls at higher risks of sexual exploitation and violence. This violence not only leads to physical and psychological trauma but also undermines their ability to integrate into the economy and gain livelihood, as safety concerns and trauma disrupt their economic engagement.

Paving the Path Forward: Empowering Women for Change

Despite daunting difficulties, several organizations and local women-owned businesses actively contribute to combat gender inequality and empower women economically in Sudan. One such organization is the Gender Centre for Research and Training (GCRT), a Sudanese civil society organization established in Khartoum in 1997. GCRT actively raises awareness on gender concepts to ensure gender mainstreaming in development and government policies. The GCRT focuses on research, training, alliance building, networking, advocacy and creating solidarity as means to achieve its objectives. It promotes women’s equality and their right to be active participants in social, cultural, economic and political life in Sudan, particularly during this transitional period toward democracy and peace.

Since 2011, UN Women has also instituted programs which have helped more than 60 women-owned organizations in Sudan. These programs provide vital skills training, humanitarian relief, and support women’s participation in peacebuilding. This assistance directly empowers women to become game-changers in their communities, demonstrating resilience and possibilities of a more equitable future in Sudan.

Towards a More Equitable Future

The long-lasting gender wage gap in Sudan is a complex issue of entrenched economic disparities, gendered social norms and the devastating impacts of war. The resolution of this issue requires an integrated approach of addressing low women’s labor market participation, occupational segregation, education inequalities and the heightened vulnerabilities of poor and war-affected women. By educating women, empowering them economically, and giving them freedom from violence, agencies like GCRT and UN Women are paving new ways for an improved and equitable Sudan, demonstrating that through concerted efforts, even the biggest roadblocks to gender equality can be overcome.

– Anoushka Rai

Anoushka is based in Frisco, TX, USA and focuses on Technology and Solutions for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Unsplash