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Child Soldiers in Mali: A Hidden Crisis of Conflict

Child Soldiers in Mali: A Hidden Crisis of Conflict The recruitment and use of child soldiers in Mali has remained a persistent and often overlooked outcome of the country’s deepening instability. Since armed conflict first erupted in 2012, children have been drawn into roles far beyond their years – fighting on frontlines, acting as scouts and serving logistical roles under coercive or deceptive conditions. Despite clear international prohibitions, armed groups continue to involve minors in a war that disregards age or consent.

Conflict and the Machinery of Recruitment

The security crisis in Mali began more than a decade ago, first triggered by a coup and fueled by the rise of jihadist groups. In areas where the state has lost its grip, nonstate actors have filled the vacuum. Among them, Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM) – an al-Qaeda affiliate –has become one of the most active recruiters of children. In 2022, the United Nations (U.N.) verified 394 cases of child recruitment in Mali. The real figure, aid workers suggest, is likely much higher. Children are also recruited by local defense groups and pro-government militias, particularly in regions like Mopti and Gao. While some join voluntarily due to desperation, others are forcibly conscripted or manipulated through promises of safety or income.

Why Children Are Vulnerable

In rural Mali, children often face an impossible choice: survive or surrender. Many lack access to basic education, food or protection. With livelihoods disappearing and schools destroyed, some see joining armed groups as the only path forward. In many cases, entire families rely on armed factions for security and children volunteer out of obligation or necessity. Girls are especially at risk. Armed groups frequently subject them to sexual violence, domestic labor and forced marriages. These experiences often go unreported but leave deep and lasting trauma.

Legal Promises and Local Realities

International law, including the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, clearly prohibits the use of children under 18 in hostilities. Mali signed an action plan with the U.N. in 2017 to end the recruitment of children by state forces. However, enforcement has been weak. While the Malian government no longer officially recruits children, armed groups continue to do so with little consequence. Security forces lack control in large parts of the country, allowing nonstate actors to operate freely. As a result, the use of child soldiers in Mali has persisted in both open combat and support roles.

Reintegration and Recovery

Children who leave armed groups often return to communities that may no longer exist or that regard them with suspicion. Without structured reintegration, many remain vulnerable to poverty, re-recruitment and long-term psychological trauma.

In 2023, the Mali Humanitarian Situation Report documented that 42 children formerly associated with armed forces and groups received protection and reintegration support in the Mopti and Ségou regions. This assistance included case management, family reunification and access to essential services such as psychosocial care and education.

UNICEF, in partnership with local and international actors, continues to support such initiatives. These ongoing efforts often involve the establishment of safe spaces, vocational training, trauma counseling and education catch-up programs. However, the scope of support remains limited compared to the scale of need. Globally, the organization emphasizes a comprehensive reintegration approach that includes community-based services, psychosocial support and family tracing. In Mali, this approach is critical to reducing the likelihood of re-recruitment and helping former child soldiers rebuild their lives.

A Global Call for Action

The child soldier crisis in Mali continues to pose significant challenges to national and regional stability. The porous borders of the Sahel region have facilitated the spread of conflict into neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Niger, exacerbating humanitarian concerns. According to UNICEF, 10 million children across these three nations are in urgent need of humanitarian assistance, with nearly 4 million at risk in adjacent countries due to escalating hostilities. This situation underscores the critical need for sustained international support to address the root causes of child recruitment and to provide comprehensive reintegration programs.

Looking Ahead

Ongoing insecurity in Mali presents significant challenges for child protection. As armed groups continue to operate across vast ungoverned territories, efforts to prevent child recruitment remain limited in reach and resources. Reintegration programs supported by humanitarian partners have demonstrated effective strategies. Sustainable solutions potentially require increased coordination, long-term investment and integration of services across sectors, including education, mental health and family support. Strengthening national frameworks and expanding community-based interventions may help reduce future recruitment and support recovery for affected children.

– Charlie Baker

Charlie is based in London, UK and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Child Soldiers in Vietnam: The Cost of War on Children

Child Soldiers in Vietnam: The Cost of War on ChildrenChildren have often been caught in the crossfire of war, witnessing their homes destroyed and their childhoods disrupted. An especially tragic reality is the recruitment and use of child soldiers during conflict. Children have historically been expected or obligated to work as cooks, spies and even combatants and the Vietnam War (1955 to 1975) was no exception.

The Vietnam War

The Vietnam War lasted more than two decades and divided North and South Vietnam. The United States backed the South, sending around 536,000 troops. After World War II, both regions sought reunification but envisioned different futures. The North, inspired by the Cold War and Soviet influence, aimed to establish a communist state, while the South opposed this ideology. The war caused extensive loss of life and economic damage. More than 3 million people died, including 2 million Vietnamese civilians. By the time the war ended in 1975, Vietnam’s economy ranked among the poorest in the world.

Child Soldiers in Vietnam

Vietnamese children experienced wartime hardships that forced them to grow up quickly. Many became homeless overnight and lost access to consistent education due to the constant threat of attack. Children as young as 13 joined the Vietnamese Communist Party’s military efforts. They were trained in guerrilla warfare and participated in attacks on South Vietnamese and American forces. Child soldiers in Vietnam were so prominent in the war that there were military awards specific to children such as “Iron Fort Children” or “Destroyer of the Yanks.” These child soldiers were also given the title of “Tiny Guerilla.” The Tiny Guerillas were not drafted; many volunteered due to social pressures and economic hardship. Interviews and academic accounts suggest that promises of national prosperity and purpose motivated them to join the Viet Cong.

Children’s Rights After the War

Following the war, Vietnam introduced legal protections for children through the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The 2013 Constitution and new laws outlined regulations regarding children’s participation in civic life, including the military. These laws aim to prevent the future use of child soldiers in Vietnam.

Postwar Economic Effects

The post-war toll on Vietnam was devastating. Bombings and landmines destroyed much of the infrastructure and toxic chemicals lingered in the atmosphere. Following the war, Vietnam’s economy ranked among the world’s poorest and the government’s five-year plans were ineffective. However, the introduction of “Đổi Mới” marked a turning point, helping Vietnam become one of the fastest-growing markets, with an economic growth rate of 6 to 7%. Additionally, this policy reduced the poverty rate from 60% to 14% within nine years.

Looking Ahead

Vietnam’s postwar development includes strengthening legal protections for children and preventing their involvement in armed conflict. As the country continues to implement policies aligned with international child rights frameworks, expanding access to education, mental health support and economic opportunities may help address the long-term impacts of war.

Ongoing investment in youth-focused programs, especially in rural and historically affected areas, could support more consistent development outcomes. Collaboration between government, community organizations and international partners can potentially reinforce prevention strategies and improve child welfare systems. While Vietnam has made notable economic progress, continued attention to child protection is relevant in ensuring recovery efforts extend to future generations.

– Sydney Carr

Sydney is based in San Diego, CA, USA and focuses on Business and New Markets for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Child Soldiers in Burkina Faso: Why Child Recruitment Is a Crisis

Child Soldiers in Burkina FasoAccording to the U.N. Secretary-General’s annual report on Children and Armed Conflict, published in June 2024, terrorist groups in Burkina Faso predominantly recruited 169 child soldiers. Since the outbreak of conflict in August 2015 between Islamist groups and the government, Burkina Faso has faced yet another political and social challenge alongside child labor: child soldiers recruitment. Alongside ongoing cases of child abuse—including killings, kidnappings and labor exploitation— military extremist groups’ recruitment of child soldiers in Burkina Faso is increasing by nearly 100 individuals annually. Despite extensive child protection efforts by UNICEF and other organizations, such as Save the Children and Caritas, violations and crimes against children, and the recruitment of child soldiers in Burkina Faso continue to rise due to the government’s unstable position, a worsening humanitarian crisis and societal divisions.

Brief Background of the Burkina Faso Conflict

The ongoing conflict in Burkina Faso escalated on August 23, 2015, when a rebel Islamist group affiliated with an Islamist insurgency movement attacked multiple government posts, resulting in numerous civilian deaths and injuries. According to U.N. reports, nearly 10 years of war have killed at least 10,000 civilians and combatants, not including regular kidnappings. The statistics on political instability, the rise of new hotspots and the increase in existing ones are disheartening. An analytical report by Al Jazeera showed that the number of hotspot locations increased from 303 in 2018 to 2,216 locations in 2019, representing an approximate rise of 631.3% in just one year. The most vulnerable groups in these conflict zones remain women, the elderly and children, who suffer not only from the humanitarian crisis but also from the widespread practice of child soldier recruitment, a practice that the Burkina Faso government strictly prohibits.

Where Does Child Soldier Recruitment Take Place?

Since the practice of child soldier recruitment is widespread and often beyond state control, its origins remain unclear. Some of the most significant instances of child soldier use throughout history occurred during the Vietnam War, World War II and in modern times, within Russian Army forces in the Russo-Ukrainian war. However, the regions that suffer the most from the practice of child soldier recruitment are primarily in Africa. According to the U.N. annual report, countries such as the Central African Republic, North Sudan, Sudan, Nigeria, Somalia, Mali and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are among the hardest-hit territories. The report indicates that armed groups recruit between 100 and 2,000 children as soldiers annually in these areas.

Child Soldiers in Burkina Faso and Child Abuse

While the humanitarian crisis and war crimes continue to be major issues, the statistics on child abuse in the country during this period are also rapidly worsening. Given the unstable position of the government, the vulnerability of civilians, particularly women and children, has become a deeply challenging issue to resolve. According to UNICEF, up to 93% of children in the country lack access to public health services, hygiene, nutrition and education. Additionally, UN Trade and Development reports that “nearly four out of 10 people live in extreme poverty.” This situation is caused by insufficient production capacity for goods and services, the challenging transition from a highly centralized state economy to a market economy, major political instability, the geographical disadvantage of being landlocked and external debt.

Another significant issue is the regular recruitment of child soldiers by extremist military groups. The charitable organization Theirworld, dedicated to ending the global education crisis, reports on the causes of child soldier recruitment. In many cases, extremist groups kidnap children and force them into service, while social and economic pressures in their country drive others to join. Lacking proper access to education and humanitarian aid, and struggling with poverty, these children become more vulnerable to the influence of terrorist groups that promise them money or drugs in exchange for their service. As a result, those who join the military often commit war crimes, including killing civilians, or become victims of sexual abuse. Reuters reports that some of these children even participate in massacres.

The World’s Response

In response to the recruitment of child soldiers, some of the world’s largest organizations, such as UNICEF and Save the Children, have established multiple charitable programs that receive donations from volunteers worldwide. UNICEF’s reintegration program for former child soldiers has helped more than 8,700 children escape armed groups and reintegrate into civilian life. Through its partners, UNICEF provides these children with full access to education, health care, counseling services and a safe place to live during their recovery period.

Additionally, Save the Children delivers child rights protection and education services in African regions, while also creating petitions and securing ongoing donations to support the cause. It provides education to war-affected children, including former child soldiers, by offering accelerated learning programs and psychological support. Its efforts resulted in 4,000 children receiving education and becoming empowered, and 62,000 children receiving protection from harm.

Furthermore, the UN Integrated Strategy for the Sahel (UNISS), together with key partners such as UNICEF, UNHCR and the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict (OSRSG-CAAC), works with governments and armed groups to sign and implement action plans aimed at ending the recruitment and use of child soldiers.

A Call to Action

While the recruitment of child soldiers remains one of the most devastating and persistent issues in Burkina Faso, driven by severe economic and political challenges, powerful global organizations like the UN and UNICEF are uniting for a common goal: to combat poverty and protect the vulnerable. Through impactful campaigns such as UNICEF’s program for Children Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups (CAAFAG), they are working to protect children in conflict zones and ensure their reintegration into society in African regions including Burkina Faso. 

All the programs mentioned are working in Sahel conflict zones, where Burkina Faso is included, so far none of the specific branches to work only in Burkina Faso was created. Additionally, child soldiers receive the same help as other vulnerable children in Sahel conflict zones.

– Liubov Linnyk

Liubov is based in England and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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The Use of Child Soldiers in Iraqi Kurdistan

Child Soldiers in Iraqi KurdistanThe use of child soldiers in Iraqi Kurdistan has a long and troubling history, dating back to the mid-to-late 20th century when Kurdish militias mobilized entire communities, including children, in their struggle for autonomy. Yet, one particular 1970’s terrorist militia, The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), continues its fight today seeking an independent Kurdish state, while indicted of war crimes for exploiting children as young as 7 for combat.

The History of Child Soldiers in Iraqi Kurdistan

During Saddam Hussein’s reign, vulnerable children often became targets of informal militias, with the PKK recruiting aggressively since its formation. In 1994, reports filed by the UN Refugee Agency documented the PKK’s “systematic increase in child recruitment” and even the creation of “child regiments.” A battalion called Tabura Zaroken Sehit Agit, for instance, operated with “a committee of five children aged between 8 and 12.” A year later, sources from the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP) verified these reports after the loss of 1,000 PKK guerrillas—many of them young boys and girls—during an attack on the Kurdish Democratic Party. Yet, instead of being deterred by heavy casualties, the PKK intensified its recruitment efforts, adding 3,000 more children to its ranks by 1998.

About 13 years after Saddam Hussein’s deposition, the practice had not subsided. Human Rights Watch documented 29 cases of the use of child soldiers in 2016 –  all tied to the PKK. Additionally, of these cases, the children concerned routinely admitted to “participating in fighting,” staffing checkpoints throughout the PKK occupied Qandil Mountains, and cleaning or preparing weapons. The latter occupations, although far from the frontlines, still carrying significant risks. Due to Iraqi Kurdistan’s neighboring proximity to Turkey, Turkish airstrikes can kill child soldiers without the children witnessing the horrors of close combat.

The Influence of Poverty

Chiefly, the depths of Iraqi poverty bear the foremost reason why these children fall into recruitment traps that militias created. Deprived of money and education, children fall susceptible to armed groups offering financial incentives. As of 2016, UNICEF reported that more than a half a million Iraqi children were engaged in labor due to declining family incomes, violence and displacement. With a further “5 million children in need of urgent humanitarian assistance.” Furthermore, long-term political instability, corruption or weak governance in Iraq has exacerbated poverty. Limited economic opportunities and displacement due to armed conflict coupled with societal pressures to achieve rite of passage or honor in protection of one’s family makes children increasingly vulnerable to militant influence.

As such, important NGOs like the International Rescue Committee (IRC), which began operating in Iraq in 2003, and the Iraq Child Rights Network which began working in Iraq in 2011, are continuously offering community-based child protection systems and implementing protective policies. In 2022, the IRC’s child and youth protection and development services supported 18,200 people, providing conflict-affected children with access to sustainable, specialized, holistic and nurturing protective services. Likewise, the ICRN has contributed its support to the National Child Protection Policy (NCPP), a policy which aims to provide a comprehensive framework to protect children from violence, exploitation and abuse, including preventing the recruitment of children into armed forces and armed groups.

Positive Changes

However, among all progress, the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) is driving the greatest changes. In August 2024, a conference occurred titled Promoting the Rights of Internally Displaced Persons in Accordance with International Standards. At this conference, Kurdistan’s Coordinator for International Advocacy, Dinadr Zebari, highlighted the KRG’s aims—specifically its 2021–2025 Regional Human Rights Action Plan—to raise Iraqi Kurdistan’s international reputation through “commitments to human rights.”

He stated the KRG has already implemented several human rights recommendations upon refugees, of whom are the primary source of child soldiers. These recommendations include “reception, accommodation, and essential services.” In fact, the KRG is now responsible for 80% of services for refugees, having allocated 138 schools and 54 mainstream schools throughout the region. This is monumental achievement, because 40,410 refugee students now receive formal education and there is hope that more refugees will enroll in mainstream schools since the Ministry of Education’s granting approval in 2021.

Looking Ahead

While the future looks promising for Iraq and its educational developments, there can be no complete celebration until every child is safe from militancy. About 327,000 refugees still reside in Iraq, with 41% estimated to be children under 18. Of these, 90% live specifically in the Kurdistan region. This means that potentially 93,000 child refugees still require aid and education after subtracting those already enrolled in schools. 

– Leighton Webber

Leighton is based in the UK and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Child Soldiers in Kosovo

Child Soldiers in Kosovo
The use of child soldiers has long been a tragic consequence of war, affecting countless regions across the globe. The Kosovo War (1998–1999) was no exception, with reports highlighting the involvement of child soldiers in armed groups like the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). Today, Kosovo has largely transitioned from its wartime past to a period of relative stability. However, there is little evidence to suggest current use of child soldiers in Kosovo.

Kosovo War

The Kosovo War, a violent struggle for independence from Yugoslavia, saw widespread human rights violations, including the use of child soldiers. 

In February 1998, the Kosovo War broke out between Albanian Kosovo residents, who sought independence and self-determination, from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Serbian government forces as there was deep-seated animosity between the Albanian majority and the Serbian minority. Serbia’s policies of repression, including the systematic denial of rights to ethnic Albanians, escalated tensions. The Kosovo War lasted 15 months and 15,000 people lost their lives. In 1999, the war concluded with the withdrawal of the Serbian army and the establishment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo.

Child Soldiers

The KLA, otherwise known as the Ushtria Clirimtare e Kosoves – UČK, a mostly Albanian Kosovan paramilitary group fighting for Kosovo’s independence, reportedly recruited children as young as 15. While some joined voluntarily, inspired by nationalist sentiments or familial pressure, however, there were also cases of coercion and manipulation. Furthermore, during the war, widespread poverty fueled the vulnerability of children to exploitation and becoming child soldiers. 

In October 2000, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) revealed that among the 16,024 registered members of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), approximately 10% were under the age of 18. Most of these minors were 16 or 17 years old, while around 2% were younger than 16. The youngest recruits, predominantly girls, were typically assigned roles such as cooking and logistical support rather than direct combat. Other girls also joined the KLA, such as a 15-year-old whose father proudly declared, “I am a soldier, my son is a soldier, my daughter is a soldier, and all my 11 children will become soldiers. We will fight until we achieve our freedom.”

Legislature After War

After the war concluded in 1999, Kosovo has since claimed independence in 2008, but the scars of war, particularly among youth, continue to be felt. 

Despite this, Kosovo has made strides in ensuring the safety and future of its children. Legislative reforms in Kosovo have played a pivotal role in aligning the country’s child protection policies with international standards. Kosovo’s implementation of its 2003 Criminal Code incorporates provisions at criminalizing recruitment of child soldiers.  

Articles 151 and 153 specifically address the conscription or recruitment of children under the age of 15 into national armed forces, armed groups, or their use in hostilities during international or non-international armed conflicts. These acts are considered grave violations, punishable by sentences ranging from 5 years to life imprisonment. However, these provisions apply only during an actual armed conflict.

In addition, Article 155 criminalizes the recruitment of children aged 15 to 18, irrespective of whether an armed conflict exists. This offense carries a penalty of 1 to 10 years in prison. These protocols have strengthened Kosovo’s legal frameworks to protect children from exploitation in armed groups in any future armed conflict.

Economically

Prior to the war and changes that took place on the Balkan peninsula, Kosovo was the poorest by the region’s standards. By the draw of the war, nearly half of Kosovo’s population lived below the poverty line. The conflict significantly reduced the number of able-bodied workers, caused extensive damage to most infrastructure, and severely disrupted commercial activity. Poverty was directly correlated with child soldier recruitment, as impoverished families often faced coercion, or children voluntarily joined for the promise of basic needs or nationalist fervor. Today, while progress has been made, Kosovo still grapples with significant poverty levels, with over 30% of its population living below the poverty threshold. This underscores the ongoing need to address poverty as a root to prevent the cause of child exploitation and can help reduce ethnic tensions to prevent another war.

Conclusion

During the Kosovo War, child soldiers were a significant percent of soldiers, showing how poverty and conflict affects vulnerable populations. 

Today, while the recruitment of child soldiers in Kosovo has largely ceased, the scars of war remain in economic hardship. Addressing ongoing economic hardship and strengthening child protection laws are essential steps in preventing future exploitation. By fostering education, economic opportunity and community resilience, Kosovo can continue its post-conflict recovery for peace and stability.

– Avery Hazard

Avery is based in Spain and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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The Enough Project: Easing Poverty in DRC

The Enough ProjectFor more than 30 years the people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) have endured the perpetual reverberations resulting from ongoing economic and political conflict. The obstructive effects of conflict on the Congolese people continue to attract the attention of multiple organizations, including the Enough Project. Armies and rebels continue to use violence to control natural resources and have repressed independent voices to maintain financial and physical power. Indeed, 75% of the people live in poverty, compounded by “the second largest internally displaced people’s crisis in Africa.” is having devastating effects.

Natural Resources Creating Conflict

The DRC is rich in natural resources. Yet its wealth has not benefited local communities. Children as young as 11 work in mines or work as child soldiers without pay. Congolese families face cycles of violence and challenges that have led to insecurity and poverty.

The trade of the “conflict minerals” (3TG) cobalt, coltan and tantalum, continues to fuel the armed civil conflict in the DRC. Coltan, (67% of the world’s supply) is the source of tantalum. Cobalt (70% of the world’s supply) is essential to manufacture smartphones.  Combined, tantalum and cobalt are used to power batteries.

In addition, the DRC has one of the largest reserves of potential wealth, including 200 million acres of cultivable land. Combined, the DRC’s natural resources total more than $24 trillion worth of minerals.

The World Food Program (WFP) identifies key drivers or motivators of food insecurity and their complex relationship with conflict and economic shocks.

Conflict minerals are a natural resource that has motivated conflict and desperation in the DRC. While the WFP provides emergency food assistance to conflict-affected areas of Eastern DRC, the Enough Project advocates from a different position.

The Enough Project

Founded in 2007, the Enough Project, a non-profit organization based in Washington, D.C. has advocated civilian protection strategies and supported peace in Eastern Congo. In 2008, the Enough Project broadened its strategies. To upgrade the Enough Project’s effectiveness, it formed the Raise Hope for Congo campaign. The campaign aims to educate activists to help alleviate conflicts in Eastern Congo.

In 2016, the Enough Project adopted another campaign, Sentry, to address the increase of civil conflicts and an unyielding situation of food insecurity.  Sentry’s mission is to “produce hard-hitting investigative reports and dossiers on individuals and entities connected to grand corruption and violence.”

Addressing the DRC’s situation of malnutrition, illness, and poverty is a primary concern. Confronting the DRC’s volatile civil conflicts, the pressing situation of poverty and food insecurity can benefit the people of the DRC.  “The conflict, which has persisted in the east of the DRC for almost 30 years, and is the deadliest since the Second World War, is mainly economic,” explains Nobel Laureate Denis Mukwege. The conflict displaced more than 10 million people, with plenty of them being forcibly recruited into armed groups or killed.

Looking to the Future of the DRC

The children of the DRC are its future.  Nearly half of the population of the DRC is under the age of 15. Working in mines or serving as soldiers instead of attending school is not a well-grounded path for any child. Of the 30,000 fighters involved in the ongoing conflicts, one-third are children. The Congolese children are the most vulnerable population. They are witnesses and forced participants.

The threat of conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is immediate. The sale of conflict minerals can be faulted for the existing high levels of food insecurity. The primary concern of the Enough Project has been to liberate government officials and families of the DRC. These actions have enabled them to address the immediate concerns of “malnutrition, illness and poor education that are making the DRC one of the hardest places on earth to raise a family.”

– Pamela Fenton

Pamela is based in Wall Township, NJ, USA and focuses on Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Sudan’s Child Soldiers: Rehabilitation Efforts by World Vision

Sudan’s Child SoldiersSudan has experienced the largest displacement since the civil war outbreak in April 2023, affecting approximately 12 million civilians. The conflict between the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), led by Janjaweed leader Hemedti and the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), under Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, has displaced more than 1 million children, primarily across South Sudan, Ethiopia and Egypt. This sudden instability has resulted in numerous deaths and disabilities and has brought the country to the brink of famine.

Child Soldiers

Child soldiers often come from poor backgrounds and are forcefully recruited and, in some cases, decide to join, having witnessed violent streaks in their villages under the influence of the warring parties. In 2000, the United Nations (U.N.) General Assembly warned militias. It recognized that the use and recruitment of children as child soldiers is a crime act. An optional protocol was initiated to protect children from recruitment.

Despite extra measures, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has accounted for 7,622 child soldiers in global conflicts as of 2022. The militia abducts and indoctrinates children to be porters, guards, cooks and combatants; the minors are also used as shields and for sexual exploitation, according to the U.N.

World Vision

World Vision is a Christian faith-based organization that seeks to create safe and harmonious environments for vulnerable children, irrespective of their backgrounds. It is dedicated to ending child exploitation in developing countries by tackling the root cause of poverty. World Vision’s main aim is to end all forms of child exploitation with a holistic approach, providing hope to Sudan’s former child soldiers.

Measures Set in Rehabilitating Child Soldiers

  1. Prevention: The primary focus of World Vision is to prevent child recruitment and ensure child safety by educating the affected communities on how family/community violence can lead to malleable decision-making. It believes that reinforcing protective measures can prevent recruitment. Furthermore, integrating tools and skills for young boys and girls in decision-making can lead to a more harmonious community.

    Elders and caregivers are encouraged to participate in social networks to eradicate harmful beliefs and help protect their youth. In partnership with civic organizations, community-based organizations and other nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), World Vision provides economic opportunities, social assistance, universal birth registration and family support funds.
  1. Reintegration: Despite the atrocities Sudan’s child soldiers have faced, many find hope in World Vision’s rehabilitation centers. So far, 2,000 children have recovered with the aid of UNICEF and the education sector in the two centers currently operating in South Sudan. Former war children receive counseling tailored to their traumas. Additionally, opportunities for a new life are created through access to formal education, various apprenticeships like tailoring and other vocational training.

    Additionally, World Vision has funded space in the Blue Nile region with a volleyball court, basketball court, board games and art equipment. Children-friendly spaces are important for the psychological development of former child soldiers, allowing them to feel like children again. One former child soldier, Grace, who was abducted at 17, shared her gratitude for the rehabilitation center and how she found hope again through tailoring.

Final Remark

World Vision’s efforts have transformed the lives of children who once knew only violence. By promoting social cohesion and providing access to education, the NGO aims to prevent further child exploitation. The long term goals is ensuring a better quality of life for the children and their communities.

– Lydie Udofia

Lydie is based in London, UK and focuses on Global Health and World News for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Child Soldiers in Pakistan

Child Soldiers in PakistanPakistan is an emerging middle power within the East Asia hemisphere quickly on the incline to becoming one of the world’s largest militaries and economic power in the East. However, for all its recent growth, a multitude of issues still plague the nation; terrorism, corruption, religious strife, illiteracy and poverty are all issues that remain, including the use of child soldiers in armed civil and religious conflict. Let’s take a look at the history of child soldiers in Pakistan and what steps the government has taken to eliminate and reduce the issue.

The Past

According to UNICEF, conflict parties around the world recruited more than 105,000 children between 2005 and 2005 and that number could be “much higher than reported.” It is hard to quantify just how responsible Pakistan is to these numbers due to the lack of statistics surrounding the subject, but that does not detract from its role in the involvement of child soldiering.

Pakistan struggles with the problem of active recruitment from factions and parties that are not associated with an official government. These militant groups work on cross-border recruitment strategies to bolster their ranks. The Taliban in Afghanistan forced recruitment through madrassas, Islamic seminary groups acting to radicalize the children. Similar situations arise in the bordering regions in Kashmir and Jammu, where party elders recruit teenagers and subject them to informal combat training. The elders push the envelope further as after combat training, they monitor the recruits at home to make sure that they are following the recruitment program.

In Pakistan, internal recruitment independent of outside parties was also going strong. The Mohajir Quami Movement (MQM) represents the Mohajir community in Pakistan but concurrently engages in periodic violence to resolve religious disputes. It is unknown how many numbered the ranks of MQM in the early 20th century, but the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers reported that a degree of their number did consist of underage soldiers.

Socioeconomic Realities

Forced recruitment is not the only underlying cause of the prevalence of child soldiers in Pakistan: many choose to enlist. The reasons vary according to political circumstances and geographical and socioeconomic realities and can explain voluntary recruitment. In 2018, 21.9% of people in Pakistan lived in poverty. Poverty was prevalent while economic opportunity was scarce and many children did not have viable options to support themselves. The onset of poverty and financial instability led many children to resort to becoming child soldiers as a way to escape the poverty of Pakistan.

To further the issue, an increased number of underage soldiers is a result of the legislation and constitution of Pakistan. Under Article 39 of the 1973 Pakistan Constitution, “the state shall enable people from all parts of Pakistan to participate in the Armed Forces of Pakistan.” The law of Pakistan meant that as long as one volunteered, they could serve, independent of a legal and required age. As the U.N. reported in Geneva in 1997, the legal age [was] between 17 and 22 for officers and between 16 and 25 for soldiers, according to the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers.

The constitutional mandate of 16 being the minimum age to serve in an official capacity paired with the active recruitment of militants through madrassas and grievance causes created a pipeline of child soldiers, however, in a more progressive turn, the government has slowly decreased the amount of child soldiers in Pakistan.

Government’s Initiatives

The Pakistani government is all too aware of their issues and has taken the first steps to overcome the issue of recruitment. Beginning with the problem of madrassas and radicalization of religion for terrorism, the Pakistani military announced it would bring more than 30,000 religious schools under government control in 2019. Many non-state armed groups used these schools to forcibly recruit children. By recognizing the issue of indoctrination at a young age from outside militants, the government is protecting the children and giving them an opportunity for education without the possibility of forced recruitment for armed conflict.

Other initiatives can help increase the education retention rate and act as a deterrent to becoming child soldiers voluntarily. There are multiple options for rehabilitating and inclusion besides forced participation in school. Programs like sports and recreation centers can keep kids engaged and able to experience childhood without the ramifications of militant group recruitment. Additionally, the Pakistani government can implement reintegration centers to destigmatize and de-radicalize former child soldiers. By addressing their issues, accepting them as part of society and taking steps towards integration, the rate of child soldiers will drop dramatically.

Child Soldiers Prevention Act (CSPA)

In 2008, the U.S. federal government passed the Child Soldiers Prevention Act (CSPA). This Act had one major goal: to combat the recruitment or use of children as soldiers by publicly identifying countries that engage in this practice. Since its inception, Pakistan has appeared on the CSPA list every year. However, in 2021, Pakistan, notably, was removed from the list, no longer being seen as a country that engages and participates in the practice of child soldiers. The justification waiver the President released upon the removal of Pakistan from the CSPA list relates as follows: maintaining “security assistance to Pakistan subject to the CSPA restriction supports critical U.S. objectives of promoting regional stability and counterterrorism in South Asia,” according to the Stimson Center.

Pakistan, a country once embroiled in political turmoil and radicalization has taken the first steps to legitimize itself. Taking the initiative to protect the education of children, increasing education rates and the protection of children shows that leadership is reforming the problems of the past. Children are no longer subjected to the active recruitment practices of internal militants and outside organizations. Stability within the region provided by the Pakistani military has created a wave of progression that is slowly eradicating the practice of child soldiers in Pakistan, serving as an example to other countries within the region and the globe.

– Luke Scroggins

Luke is based in Tolar, TX, USA and focuses on World News for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Flickr

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Child Soldiers in Sudan

Child Soldiers in SudanSudan has been rife with conflict since its first civil war in 1955 when the north and south clashed. In 2005, they agreed to stop fighting and in 2011, South Sudan became its own country. But in the meantime, there have been ongoing tensions, especially in the Darfur region since 2003. Even though they made another peace deal in 2020 to have a temporary government, there was a military coup soon after and the fighting started again in 2023.

Across Sudanese conflicts, child soldiers are a consistent humanitarian concern, with most nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) emphasizing their recruitment in the South. However, according to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), approximately 6,500 children served in armed groups in northern Sudan during the civil war, with around 70% serving in Darfur alone. This trend continued with armed groups recruiting more than 400 children between 2011 and 2020 and an 11% increase in recruitment just in 2023.

The Multi-Faceted Reality of Child Soldiers in Sudan

Children become soldiers for a variety of reasons. While some are forced into service by armed groups, many, especially those separated from their parents, do so “voluntarily.” Sudan’s conflict has caused extreme poverty and widespread violence, leaving children with few alternatives than to turn to the armed forces simply out of a need for their resources and protection.

Though some children may become soldiers consensually, such activity is still a violation of international humanitarian law. It can have severe long-term consequences on child soldiers, ranging from physical to psychological illness. The experiences of child soldiers, which are often the drivers of such trauma, are characterized by violence during an age when development is most vulnerable.

Child soldiers are not only combatants but may, in fact, serve a variety of roles. Recruitment may mean a child is utilized in the armed forces as a cook, porter, messenger or spy; many sexually exploit children, too. Limiting the scope of what a child soldier is to exclude these distinct forms of abuse can leave certain victims out of the reintegration process.

Understanding this nuance is crucial not only for grasping how child soldiers in Sudan serve but also for pinpointing where they serve. Though initially conscripted in areas like Darfur, many armed groups train child soldiers in Sudan for the sole purpose of being sent to combat zones elsewhere. Several reports indicate that dangerous conflicts ranging from Yemen to Libya may employ child soldiers from Sudan.

Solutions

Several organizations have played key roles in aiding child soldiers in Sudan and Darfur. In 2007, the United Nations (U.N.) initiated the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) to mediate hostilities, aiding child soldiers’ transition back into society through a process known as Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR). UNAMID oversaw several releases of child soldiers for reintegration. In 2011, The Sudan Liberation Army / Historical Leadership (SLA/HL) released 70 child soldiers, of which 24 were girls. Similarly, the Sudanese government released 21 child soldiers in 2016. Following the 2020 peace agreement, UNAMID ended its operations.

Subsequently, the United Nations Integrated Transition Assistance Mission (UNITAMS) was created to uphold the peace agreement and oversee Sudan’s transition to democratic rule. Continuing much of UNAMID’s goals, UNITAMS had “a strong child protection mandate,” which allowed for the monitoring of any human rights violations against children and the further facilitation of DDR. However, a military coup stopped the democratic transition in 2021, preventing UNITAMS from fulfilling this mandate. UNITAMS ultimately ended its operations on Feb. 29, 2024.

NGOs have also been essential to ending the recruitment of child soldiers in Sudan, with one of them being War Child. War Child is known for many campaigns, but in 2019, it launched its Can’t Wait to Learn program in Sudan, intervening in children’s education as early as possible to dissuade them from becoming soldiers. This targets the issue of recruitment at its source, bringing quality education to an impoverished population. War Child reached 2,667 children in 2019 alone but ended its operations following the resumption of conflict.

Final Remark

Despite the challenges, supporting organizations working toward ending poverty and the recruitment of child soldiers remains one of the best strategies to ensure the future of reintegration and demobilization in Sudan.

– Jacob Rampino
Photo: Wikimedia Commons

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Child Soldiers in Ethiopia 

Child Soldiers in EthiopiaEthiopia’s long history of armed conflicts endangers the well-being of children, subjecting them to trauma and putting them at risk of recruitment for combat. Child soldiers in Ethiopia are continuously caught between the chaos of conflict and political instability. Their rights are violated as they find themselves susceptible to physical harm, sexual violence and abductions.

Conflict Background

The debris of the Tigray War, which ended in 2022, has brought a new internal conflict to the country. Ethnic relations and political tensions between Ethiopia’s Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed and the Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) caused the Tigray War to break out in 2020. The TPLF had previously been the leading force in control of the federal government, opposing Ahmed’s agenda. The Tigray War was notably characterized by ethnic violence and became of international concern.

During the war, the TPLF army used child soldiers in Ethiopia as a shield, positioning them on the front lines of the war zone. While the use of child soldiers is a violation of human rights and international law, the TPLF denies the proven accusations, stating that the children are only used to collect and gather weapons left behind.

After the war and under the premise of wanting to minimize crime based on ethnicity, the Ethiopian government began fighting militias and regional forces. This even included ones to which the government was an ally during the Tigray War, most notably the regional forces of Amhara. According to a 2022 Country Report on Human Rights Practices in Ethiopia published by the U.S. Department of State, both militias and the government are using child soldiers in Ethiopia in the current conflict. The Ethiopian government also denies the allegations.

Becoming Child Soldiers

Children become child soldiers for different reasons. Some are kidnapped; others are threatened or manipulated into joining. Armed forces favor kids for their physical endurance and because they raise fewer suspicions. However, some of them become soldiers as a way to escape poverty.

Child soldiers are not only those on the front lines; they are also used in war in any other capacity. This includes using children as cooks, spies or most recently suicide bombers. Girls who are recruited are subject to gender-specific vulnerabilities such as sexual assault, sex trafficking and unwanted pregnancies.

The Fight Against Child Soldiers

Child soldiers are victims who are forced onto battlefields and manipulated to stay. Many struggle to re-integrate into society when conflicts are over and face discrimination by their families and communities.

Organizations such as Children and Armed Conflict, part of the United Nations, focus on combating the recruitment of children for war. As stated on the site, “The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child outlaws child soldiering, and the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child established 18 as the minimum age for children’s participation in hostilities.”

The campaign Children, Not Soldiers, launched in 2014, achieved a wide range of success in the fight against child soldiers. Despite ending only two years later, long-lasting actions were achieved, such as the end and prevention of child soldiers in the DRC and Sudan. While the campaign had a major impact in other African countries, Ethiopia did not become part of the campaign.

Ethiopia’s continuous state of conflict endangers children and perpetuates a cycle of child soldier recruitment. While the issue has drawn international attention, there is much more work required to end the phenomenon of child soldiers in Ethiopia.

– Paula Pujol-Gibson
Photo: Flickr