Thailand has long been a destination for economic migrants from neighboring Southeast Asian countries like Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia. Many of these migrants, particularly women, are pushed by poverty, political instability or lack of opportunity into Thailand’s informal economy. Among the most marginalized are undocumented migrant sex workers in Thailand, who face unique vulnerabilities at the intersection of gender, class, legality and nationality.

An Underground Yet Thriving Industry

Thailand is often labeled a global hotspot for sex tourism and prostitution. Though estimates vary drastically, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) reports around 145,000 sex workers in the country. Many believe the number is underestimated due to the informal and criminalized nature of the industry.

Contrary to popular belief, the state prohibits prostitution under the 1996 Prevention and Suppression of Prostitution Act. In practice, however, enforcing regulations is inconsistent and ambiguous due to corruption and economic reliance. Sex is often negotiated in bars or massage parlors, with the actual transaction occurring off-site. This legal grey area not only reinforces the stigma surrounding sex work but also enables systemic corruption, including bribes to police and local officials.

From Neighbor To Undocumented Worker

Many women from neighbouring countries migrate due to poverty, lack of opportunity or political instability in their home countries, especially in Myanmar, where recent unrest has worsened economic conditions. Since 2023, approximately 1.5 million people from Myanmar have migrated to Thailand.

Sex work frequently pays more than other job options that are typically accessible to migrants or women of lower socioeconomic status. Alternatives like domestic work, agriculture or construction are physically demanding and underpaid. Limited legal migration channels for women, especially those with little education, push many to migrate through irregular routes or fall into trafficking.

Once in Thailand, they often remain undocumented and legally invisible. A study published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health found that most female migrant sex workers worked in karaoke venues (84.3%), massage parlors (9.1%) and traditional Thai massage shops (8.6%).

Double Stigma: Migrant and Sex Worker

The legal invisibility of undocumented migrant sex workers intensifies their vulnerability. Being both undocumented and part of a criminalized profession, these women face double stigma, as “illegal” migrants and as “immoral” workers. Health access is one of the most pressing issues: while Thailand’s public health care is often praised for its universality, in reality, sex workers report facing discrimination from providers and fear legal consequences if their work status is disclosed. Most migrants do not even have access to the system.

Additionally, authorities frequently use condom possession as proof against sex workers, which deters them from using condoms and makes them more susceptible to HIV infections. As researcher Christopher Hunter observed in the ’90s, “the Thai police are the largest perpetrators of rape and violence against migrant sex workers.” Although dated, these claims continue to echo in recent NGO reports, which document police abuse, extortion and lack of legal recourse for undocumented women.

Grassroots Supports

Where state protections fail, grassroots organizations have stepped in. For example:

• Service Workers In Group Foundation (SWING).During the COVID-19 pandemic, SWING distributed more than 40,000 food boxes and 30,000 instant food pots and hygiene kits to more than 1,500 sex workers in Bangkok and Pattaya. It has also ensured that more than 1,500 HIV-positive workers could maintain antiretroviral treatment and continued to provide PrEP and HIV testing through both fixed and mobile clinics.

• Education Means Protection Of Women Engaged in Recreation Foundation (EMPOWER).EMPOWER offers free classes in language, health, law, pre-college education and individual counselling. By 2012, EMPOWER had engaged more than 50,000 sex workers through its student and volunteer programs. The organization estimates it supports around 20,000 sex workers each year.

Conclusion

Migrant sex workers in Thailand embody a layered crisis at the intersection of borders, poverty, gender and legal ambiguity. To address their realities requires more than charity; it requires structural change. Policies on migration, labor and sex work need to be aligned with human rights principles, while also listening to the voices of those most affected. In the meantime, grassroots networks continue to fill the gap left by states.

– Kai Xian Lim

Kai is based in Lille, France and focuses on Global Health and Politics for The Borgen Project.

Photo: Wikimedia Commons